The History of Chhattisgarh: Ancient Kingdoms, Temples, and Tribal Legends

Imagine a land where ancient epics echo in rustling sal forests, where temple stones narrate tales of forgotten empires, and where vibrant tribal cultures have thrived for millennia. This isn’t a mythical realm, but Chhattisgarh, the heart of India, waiting to share its secrets. Often celebrated as the “Rice Bowl of India” for its vast paddy fields, Chhattisgarh holds a treasure trove of history and culture that goes far deeper than its agricultural abundance. Formed as a separate state on November 1, 2000, carving its identity out of Madhya Pradesh, this land has been a cradle of civilizations since time immemorial.  

This journey will peel back the layers of time, inviting you to explore the remnants of mighty kingdoms, the spiritual aura of magnificent temples, and the enduring spirit of its tribal communities. We’ll discover not just history etched in stone, but living traditions, unique art forms that tell stories without words, and flavors that carry the essence of the land. The very name, “Chhattisgarh,” is a historical puzzle that hints at the rich tapestry we are about to unravel. Popularly, it means “thirty-six forts,” a term once applied to the territory of the powerful Haihaya dynasty. Most historians believe this refers to thirty-six administrative divisions, or garhs, under the later Kalachuri kingdom, with eighteen under the Ratanpur branch and eighteen under Raipur. Yet, another compelling view, favored by many experts, suggests that “Chhattisgarh” is a linguistic evolution of “Chedisgarh,” meaning the “Kingdom of the Chedis,” another name for the Kalachuri rulers who dominated this region for centuries. This duality in its name itself whispers of a layered past – one of military might and another of profound dynastic legacy, setting a curious and intriguing tone for the historical adventure that awaits.  

Echoes of Epics and Empires: A Walk Through Chhattisgarh’s Storied Past

The story of Chhattisgarh begins in an age when gods and heroes walked the earth, their tales forever imprinted on its sacred geography. This land, known in antiquity as Dakshina Kosala, or South Kosala, was a vibrant stage for events that would shape the cultural consciousness of India.  

Dakshina Kosala: Where Legends Were Born

Step back into the mists of time, and you’ll find Dakshina Kosala resonating with the footsteps of Lord Rama. It’s widely believed that a significant portion of his fourteen-year exile was spent in the dense Dandakaranya forest, a vast wilderness that encompassed parts of modern-day Chhattisgarh. Imagine young Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana wandering through these ancient woods! Places like Shivrinarayan and Kharaud are still revered as sites touched by their presence. An even more poignant tale links Sita to Valmiki’s ashram at Turturiya, near the historic city of Sirpur. It is said that here, under the sage’s protection after being abandoned by Rama, Sita gave birth to her twin sons, Luv and Kush. This profound connection to the Ramayana imbues the very soil of Chhattisgarh with a sacred aura, transforming geographical locations into pilgrimage destinations that continue to draw devotees and story-seekers.  

The echoes of the Mahabharata also resound here. The region is referred to as Praka Kosala or Kosala, and the wild, untamed forests of Bastar were known as Kantar. Ancient sites mentioned in the epic have been identified with present-day locations: Rishytirtha with Gunji, Manipura with Ratanpur, and Chitrangadpur, the capital of Babruvahana (Arjuna’s son), with the magnificent Sirpur.  

Even before these epic narratives took deep root, civilizational markers were being laid. The land felt the influence of the mighty Mauryan and Gupta empires. Archaeological discoveries, such as Mauryan and Nanda period coins in Surguja, Akaltara, and Thathari, and significant finds in Sirpur, attest to this early organized presence. The Sitabenga caves in the Ramgarh hills, dating back to the Mauryan period in the 3rd century BCE, offer one of India’s earliest examples of theatre architecture, while the nearby Jogimara caves house some of the oldest known paintings in India, alongside ancient Brahmi inscriptions. These connections are not mere historical footnotes; they are living threads in Chhattisgarh’s cultural fabric, shaping local narratives and attracting those who seek to walk in the footsteps of legends.  

A Tapestry of Dynasties: Shaping the Land

As the great empires waned, regional powers rose, each weaving their unique threads into the evolving identity of Dakshina Kosala. This period, from the post-Gupta era to the 12th century, saw a succession of dynasties that laid the groundwork for the region’s distinct cultural and architectural character.

The Dawn of Kingdoms (Post-Gupta to 12th Century):

The Sharabhpuriya dynasty, flourishing in the 6th century AD, established their capital at Sharbhpur, with the strategically important Shripur (later Sirpur) serving as a sub-capital. Their royal insignia, featuring the Gajalakshmi (Lakshmi with elephants), symbolized prosperity and auspiciousness. Their rule eventually gave way to the Pandu dynasty.  

The Panduvanshis, also known as the Somavanshis (though distinct from the later Somavanshis of Odisha), rose to prominence between the 6th and 8th centuries AD, with Shripur as their magnificent capital. This era is particularly notable for the reign of Mahashivagupta Balarjuna, often hailed as the “Golden Age of Dakshina Kosala.” A contemporary of the powerful North Indian emperor Harshavardhana, Balarjuna’s rule was marked by stability, prosperity, and immense cultural flourishing. It was during his reign, around 639 CE, that the famed Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang visited Shripur, documenting its grandeur and the presence of numerous monasteries and temples. A lasting testament to the Panduvanshi artistic patronage is the iconic Lakshmana Temple in Sirpur, a magnificent brick structure commissioned by Queen Vasata, the mother of Mahashivagupta Balarjuna, in memory of her husband Harshagupta. This period clearly wasn’t isolated; it was vibrant and connected, contributing significantly to the broader Indian cultural sphere.  

Further south, in the forested region of Bastar, the Nala-Naga dynasty held sway from approximately the 4th to the 10th century AD. Rulers like Bhavadattavarman, known for his majesty, and Vilasatunga, credited with building the ancient Rajiv Lochan Temple at Rajim, left their mark. Their contemporary interactions with the Vakataka dynasty highlight the complex political web of ancient India.  

These early dynasties were not just transient rulers; they were institution builders. They established capitals that became centers of art and commerce, patronized religions leading to the construction of enduring temples, and developed administrative structures that governed the land. Their legacy is not just written in inscriptions but is vividly present in the archaeological treasures of Sirpur and Rajim, beckoning travelers to explore their stories.

The Mighty Kalachuris (Haihayavanshis) (Approx. 9th/10th – 18th Century):

Emerging as a dominant force, the Kalachuris, also known as Haihayavanshis, etched an unparalleled chapter in Chhattisgarh’s history, ruling for an astonishing span of nearly nine centuries. Originating as an offshoot of the Kalachuris of Tripuri (near modern Jabalpur), they established formidable centers of power at Ratanpur and later Raipur.  

Several rulers from this dynasty shaped the destiny of the region:

• Kalingaraja is credited as the founder of the Ratanpur branch in Dakshina Kosala around 1000 CE, conquering the region and establishing Tummana as his initial capital.  
• His grandson, Ratnadeva I (or Ratnaraj), truly cemented the dynasty’s power by founding the city of Ratanpur (anciently Manipur) and making it his capital, a city that grew so prosperous it was likened to ‘Kuberpur’ (the city of Kuber, the god of wealth).  
• Perhaps one of the most powerful early rulers was Jajalladeva I (c. 1090-1120 CE). He asserted the Ratanpur Kalachuris’ independence from their Tripuri overlords, expanded the kingdom significantly by invading the Chindaka Naga territory to the south, and even issued his own gold and copper coins – a clear statement of sovereignty. He also founded the city of Jajallapur, known today as Janjgir.  
• Ratnadeva II continued this legacy of strength, famously repulsing an invasion by the formidable Eastern Ganga king Anantavarman Chodaganga.  
• Prithvideva II is remembered for the numerous inscriptions from his reign, which provide invaluable insights into the kingdom’s political and cultural life, and for his patronage of temple construction.  

The Kalachuris were not just military and political masters; they were also significant cultural architects. Their reign saw the flourishing of both Shaivism and Vaishnavism, evident in the many temples they constructed or patronized, including the renowned Mahamaya Temple in Ratanpur. Literature also thrived, with scholars like the poet Rajasekhar and Gopal Chandra Mishra, considered the ‘Valmiki of Chhattisgarh’ for his work ‘Khoob Tamasha,’ gracing their courts. It’s fascinating to note that the very name “Chhattisgarh,” linked to their administrative division of territories into garhs (forts or administrative units), gained prominence during their era.  

A crucial factor in their long and relatively undisturbed reign was the kingdom’s geographical location. Nestled to the east of the main north-south routes and protected by precipitous mountain ranges on almost all sides, the Kalachuri kingdom of Mahakoshal (as they dignifiedly named their realm to assert its sovereignty and distinguish it from North Kosala ) enjoyed nearly 700 years of peaceful existence. This natural fortification largely shielded them from the early waves of Muslim invasions that affected many other parts of India between the 13th and 16th centuries. This extended period of stability was a fertile ground for the development of a distinct regional culture, allowing art, literature, and temple architecture, particularly the Nagara style, to mature and flourish without constant disruption. The Kalachuris, therefore, left an indelible mark, shaping not just the political boundaries but the very soul of Chhattisgarh.  

The Nagvanshis of Bastar (Chindaka Nagas) (Approx. 10th – 14th Century):

While the Kalachuris dominated the plains, the dense, mystical forests of Bastar were home to another powerful lineage – the Chindaka Nagas, the Serpent Kings. Their kingdom, known as Chakrakota mandala, encompassed present-day Bastar, Koraput (Odisha), and Kalahandi (Odisha). A fascinating aspect of their history is their origin; many historians believe they were of Kannada descent, hailing from the Sindavadi country in Karnataka, and possibly arrived in the Bastar region around 1022 AD with the military expedition of the Chola emperor Rajendra Chola. This connection hints at Bastar’s links to broader South Indian political and cultural currents.  

Key figures in the Chindaka Naga dynasty include:

• Nripatibhushan, an early ruler.
• Somesvara, considered the most powerful king of this line. He engaged in significant wars with the declining Somavamshis of Kosala and Utkala. However, his ambitions were checked by the Kalachuri king Jajalladeva I, who defeated and temporarily imprisoned him.  
• Harishchandradeva, the last known ruler, whose name appears in a Sati inscription dated 1324 AD.  

The Chindaka Nagas were frequently at war with their neighbors, including the Somavamshis, the Kalachuris of Ratnapura, and the Eastern Gangas, reflecting the dynamic and often turbulent power struggles of medieval India. Their capital was initially at Barsoor, a place that became a significant center for Shaivite worship under their patronage, with major temple constructions. Later, possibly due to political instability or strategic needs, the capital was relocated to Dantewada. The patron goddess of these Nagavanshi rulers was Manikyadevi. The rule of the Chindaka Nagas in the forested heartland of Bastar carved out a unique cultural and political pocket within Chhattisgarh, distinct from the Kalachuri-dominated areas, and their legacy is crucial to understanding Bastar’s unique historical path.  

The Kakatiyas in Bastar (From 14th Century):

The 14th century marked a significant turning point in Bastar’s history with the arrival of the Kakatiyas. Annamdeva, said to be the brother of the last Kakatiya king of Warangal, Pratapa Rudra Deva, left Warangal after its fall and established his rule in Bastar around 1324 AD. He achieved this by defeating the incumbent Nagvanshi rulers. Interestingly, the Kakatiyas themselves traced their lineage back to the Chalukya dynasty. This event represents the ripple effects of larger political upheavals in the Deccan, directly impacting the remote forested regions of Bastar.  

The Kakatiya rule in Bastar was characterized by a period of consolidation in a new, perhaps challenging, territory. This is evidenced by their frequent shifting of capitals. Starting from Barsoor (the former Nagvanshi capital), they moved to Dantewada, then to Bhairamgarh, followed by Chitrakote, Bade Dongargarh, and finally, around 400 years ago, to Jagdalpur, which remains the main city of Bastar today. This search for a secure and resource-rich capital underscores the complexities of establishing a new dynasty.  

A cornerstone of Kakatiya rule in Bastar was their fervent worship of Goddess Danteshwari. King Annamdev is traditionally credited with building the Danteshwari Temple in Dantewada, which became the tutelary deity of the Bastar royal family. This act of patronage was crucial in legitimizing their rule and integrating with local beliefs. Goddess Danteshwari’s prominence grew to such an extent that she became the presiding deity of the entire region, and the world-renowned Bastar Dussehra festival revolves around her worship. The Kakatiyas, therefore, not only brought a new dynastic lineage from the south but also profoundly shaped Bastar’s religious and cultural identity, establishing Jagdalpur as a lasting royal center.  

Maratha Interlude and British Arrival (18th-19th Century):

The long era of regional dynasties in Chhattisgarh began to draw to a close in the 18th century with the rise of Maratha power. The Marathas launched a decisive attack on the Haihaya (Kalachuri) kingdom in 1741, effectively shattering their centuries-old dominance. By 1758, Chhattisgarh was formally annexed into the Maratha Empire, specifically under the Bhonsles of Nagpur, with Bimbaji Bhonsle appointed as the ruler. After Bimbaji’s death, the Marathas implemented the Suba system of administration.  

The Maratha interlude was followed by the gradual ascendance of British influence. Chhattisgarh first came under some form of British control in 1818. A more definitive shift occurred in 1854 when the province of Nagpur, including Chhattisgarh, lapsed to the British government under the Doctrine of Lapse. Chhattisgarh was then constituted as a deputy commissionership, and significantly, Raipur was made its headquarters. This decision marked a pivotal change in the region’s power dynamics, shifting prominence away from the traditional Kalachuri capital of Ratanpur to Raipur. The British period also saw administrative reorganizations; for instance, in 1905, the Sambalpur district was transferred to Odisha (then part of Bengal Presidency), while the estates of Surguja were transferred from Bengal to Chhattisgarh.  

This period represents a fundamental break from centuries of rule by local or regionally powerful dynasties. The transition to Maratha and then British paramountcy brought about new administrative systems and a reordering of political and economic centers. These changes laid the groundwork for the modern administrative structure of the state but also signaled the decline of older power structures and traditional forms of autonomy.

To help you visualize this flow of history, here’s a quick look at some of the major powers that shaped Chhattisgarh:

Table: Chhattisgarh’s Ruling Dynasties – A Quick Look

This historical backdrop sets the stage for understanding the magnificent temples and rich tribal cultures that we will explore next. Each stone, each story, and each tradition is a testament to these bygone eras.

Sacred Stones and Spiritual Sanctuaries: Chhattisgarh’s Temple Trail

Chhattisgarh is a land where spirituality is etched into the very landscape. Its ancient temples, many dating back over a thousand years, are not just architectural marvels but also vibrant centers of faith and living history. Influenced by the patronage of various dynasties like the Panduvanshis, Kalachuris, and Nagvanshis, these sanctuaries showcase a fascinating blend of religious traditions – Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and even echoes of Buddhism and Jainism can be found. The predominant architectural style you’ll encounter is the Nagara, or North Indian style, often characterized by its curvilinear towers (shikharas) gracefully reaching for the heavens, and frequently constructed using locally sourced sandstone and laterite, creating a harmonious blend with the natural environment.  

Prepare to be mesmerized as we embark on a trail through some of Chhattisgarh’s most sacred and historically significant temples:

Bhoramdeo Temple (Kawardha) – The “Khajuraho of Chhattisgarh”

Often whispered in the same breath as the famous temples of Khajuraho, the Bhoramdeo Temple, nestled near Kawardha, is an absolute masterpiece. Dating primarily from the 10th to 12th centuries, during the Kalachuri period, its construction is also significantly attributed to the Fani Nagvanshi kings, notably Laxman Dev Rai and Gopal Dev. The temple derives its name from Bhoramdeo, a revered deity of the local Gond tribes, who identify him with Lord Shiva.  

Architecturally, Bhoramdeo is a stunning example of the Nagara style, though some also refer to its unique regional variation as the Gurur type. What truly sets it apart, and earns it the “Khajuraho” moniker, are its intricate and explicit erotic sculptures that adorn the outer walls, offering a candid glimpse into the societal norms and artistic expressions of the era. These carvings, depicting scenes from mythology and daily life alongside amorous figures, are a testament to a period of remarkable artistic freedom and perhaps Tantric influences, which the Naga kings of Chakrakota were known to practice. The presence of such art in a temple associated with a tribal deity suggests a fascinating confluence of mainstream Hindu traditions and deeply rooted local beliefs.  

The main stone temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva in the form of a Shiva Linga (some accounts mention a rare four-faced Linga ), consists of a mandapa (hall), an antarala (vestibule), and the garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum). Its shikhara is distinguished by receding tiers placed successively upwards. The temple faces east, with additional entrances to the north and south. Some legends even speak of astronomical alignments in its design, allowing sunlight to illuminate specific deities during equinoxes and solstices – truly “scintillating poetry in stone”.  

While you’re there: Don’t miss the nearby Istaliq Temple, an earlier brick structure dating to the 2nd-3rd centuries, and the Madwa Mahal (literally “marriage hall”), built in 1349 AD by the Naga dynasty, featuring a unique Shiva Linga erected over 16 pillars, and the Chherki Mahal. Traveler’s Tip: Visiting during the annual Bhoramdeo Mahotsav offers a vibrant cultural immersion with folk music and dance performances against the backdrop of this ancient marvel.  

Sirpur Group of Monuments – A Lost Metropolis on the Mahanadi

Imagine a bustling ancient city on the banks of the mighty Mahanadi River, a capital renowned for its commercial vibrancy and religious harmony. This was Sripura, modern-day Sirpur, the capital of the Sharabhapuriya and later the powerful Somavamshi kings from the 5th to the 12th centuries. Its fame was such that the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang, visiting around 639 CE, noted the presence of over 100 monasteries, some 10,000 Mahayana Buddhist monks, and more than 100 Hindu temples. Today, Sirpur is a sprawling archaeological site, a treasure trove of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain monuments, and is considered one of the largest Buddhist sites ever discovered in India, even surpassing Nalanda in extent. The site is also famed for its exquisite early medieval bronze sculptures.  

The harmonious coexistence of these diverse faiths is a remarkable testament to a tolerant and cosmopolitan urban center in ancient India. This wasn’t just passive acceptance; it was active patronage, as seen with the Somavamshi king Sivagupta Balarjuna sponsoring the construction of Buddhist monasteries. Such an environment undoubtedly fostered rich philosophical and artistic exchanges, contributing to the unique syncretic elements found in some of the art and the overall cultural vibrancy reported by Hiuen Tsang.  

Key monuments to explore in Sirpur include:

• Lakshmana Temple: A 7th-century marvel, this is one of India’s finest and best-preserved brick temples. Dedicated to Lord Vishnu, its walls and sanctum entrance are adorned with exquisite carvings depicting Anantasayana Vishnu (Vishnu reclining on the serpent Sesha), scenes from Krishna’s life (Krishna Leela), the ten avatars of Vishnu (Dasavatara), and graceful mithuna (amorous) couples.  
• Gandheshwar Temple: An active Shiva temple picturesquely situated on the banks of the Mahanadi. Built during the Somavamshi dynasty in the 8th century , it fascinatingly incorporates reclaimed ruins and sculptures from various Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain sites in the vicinity, including an 8th-century Brahmi inscription dedicated to Lord Buddha.  
• Ananda Prabhu Kuti Vihara and Swastika Vihara: These extensive Buddhist monastic complexes underscore Sirpur’s historical importance as a major Buddhist center. Inscriptions found here detail royal patronage and the philosophical underpinnings of the monastic life.  
• Other Significant Structures: The ruins of the Rama Temple reveal an early star-shaped platform, a precursor to later temple styles. The Teevardev Vihara is another fascinating monastery displaying a blend of Hindu and Buddhist themes. The Baleshwar Mahadev temples and the imposing Surang Tila, a large white stone temple complex with multiple sanctums raised on a high terrace, further showcase the architectural grandeur of Sirpur. You can also find remnants of a Jain basati (temple).  

Traveler’s Tip: Sirpur is vast, so allocate ample time for exploration. If your visit coincides with the Sirpur National Dance and Music Festival, you’re in for a spectacular cultural treat. An ASI museum on the Lakshmana temple premises houses many excavated artifacts.  

Rajiv Lochan Temple, Rajim – The “Prayag of Chhattisgarh”

Perched at the sacred confluence (sangam) of three rivers – the Mahanadi, Pairi, and Sondur – Rajim holds a spiritual significance comparable to Prayagraj (Allahabad). The Rajiv Lochan Temple, dedicated to the “lotus-eyed” Lord Vishnu, is the heart of this holy town. Its origins are ancient, with some traditions dating its establishment to the 7th century under the Somavamshi king Ratnadev I. What makes its history particularly compelling is the cycle of destruction and reconstruction it endured over centuries, with various dynasties including the Somavamshis, Kalachuris, Chalukyas, and Marathas contributing to its rebuilding and renovation. This continuous patronage, despite political upheavals and invasions, underscores Rajim’s unwavering importance as a pilgrimage destination. The enduring sanctity of the site, linked to Lord Vishnu and the sacred confluence, ensured its revival time and again, as rulers perhaps sought to gain religious merit or legitimacy by associating with such a potent spiritual center.  

The temple’s architecture is a fine example of the regional Chhattisgarh style, showcasing a blend of Dravidian and Nagara elements, adorned with intricate carvings and sculptures. The main shrine, with its impressive 16 pillars, houses the idol of Lord Vishnu, flanked by Goddesses Lakshmi and Saraswati. A unique tradition here is the daily adornment of the main deity in three different forms: as a child in the morning, a youth in the afternoon, and an elder in the evening.  

Legends add to Rajim’s allure. It is widely believed that Lord Rama himself visited this sacred spot during his exile and performed penance here. Some accounts even associate a visit by Buddha to this site.  

Traveler’s Tip: The Rajim Kumbh Mela (also known as Rajim Maghi Punni Mela), held annually around Magh Purnima (January-February), transforms this town into a vibrant hub of spirituality, attracting millions of devotees, sadhus, and tourists for holy dips and religious discourses. Witnessing this event is a truly unique cultural and spiritual spectacle.  

Danteshwari Temple, Dantewada – Bastar’s Guardian Deity

Deep in the tribal heartland of Bastar, at the confluence of the Shankini and Dhankini rivers (whose waters are said to be of different colors ), stands the revered Danteshwari Temple. This temple is one of the 51 Shakti Peethas, sacred sites where parts of Goddess Sati’s body are believed to have fallen. Legend holds that Sati’s Dant (tooth) fell here, giving the place its name, Dantewada, and the goddess her title, Danteshwari.  

The temple’s history is intertwined with the regional dynasties. It’s believed to have been originally constructed by the Chindak Nagvanshi rulers in the 11th-12th century, with later renovations and patronage by the Kakatiya king Annamdev in the 14th century, who made Danteshwari the tutelary deity of the Bastar royal family. The main deity is a striking six-armed image of Mahishasuramardini (an aspect of Durga slaying the buffalo demon) carved from black stone.  

Architecturally, the east-facing temple complex includes a Garbhagriha (sanctum), Antaral (vestibule), and Mukhamandap (main hall) built of stone, while the Muktimandap (viewing hall) and Natamandap (dance/assembly hall) feature wooden pillars and terracotta-tiled pyramidal roofs. A prominent Garuda pillar stands at the entrance.  

The Danteshwari Temple is the socio-cultural epicenter of Bastar, most famously demonstrated during the Bastar Dussehra. This unique festival, one of the longest in India (spanning 75 days), is not about Rama’s victory over Ravana but is a grand tribal congregation centered around Goddess Danteshwari. During this time, her idol is ceremoniously taken out in a grand procession on a massive chariot, attracting tribal communities from across the region. The lighting of Jyoti Kalashas (sacred lamps) during Navaratri is another significant ritual here. The temple, therefore, is a powerful symbol of the fusion of mainstream Shakti Peetha tradition with local tribal beliefs and royal patronage, making it a potent symbol of Bastar’s distinct cultural identity.  

Traveler’s Tip: Experiencing any part of the Bastar Dussehra is an unparalleled cultural immersion. Be mindful of local customs and the sanctity of the rituals.

Mahamaya Temple, Ratanpur – Kalachuri Grandeur

Ratanpur, the erstwhile capital of the mighty Kalachuri dynasty, is home to the highly venerated Mahamaya Temple. Built during the reign of the Kalachuri King Ratnadeva I in the 12th-13th century, this temple is dedicated to Goddess Mahamaya, considered an aspect of Durga and Mahalakshmi. She has traditionally been the Kuldevi (family goddess) of the Ratanpur state. Legend says the temple is located at the very spot where King Ratnadeva had a divine vision (darshan) of Goddess Kali.  

The temple, built in the Nagara style, faces north and is situated beside a large, serene water tank. The complex itself is layered with history. It includes the even older Kantideval Temple, said to have been built by an ascetic named Santosh Giri in 1039 AD and later expanded by Kalachuri King Prithvideva II in the 15th century. The Kantideval temple is notable for its four gates and beautiful carvings. The main courtyard of the Mahamaya temple was a later addition during the Maratha period in the late 18th century. Originally, the temple was conceived for three goddesses: Maha Kali, Maha Lakshmi, and Maha Saraswati. A later temple structure, built by King Bahar Sai in 1492 CE, was dedicated to Mahalakshmi and Maha Saraswati. This layered history of construction and renovation by different rulers reflects the changing political and religious landscape of Ratanpur, which remained an important power center for centuries. The temple complex, therefore, stands as a chronicle in stone of Ratanpur’s historical journey.  

Traveler’s Tip: Explore the entire temple complex, including the ancient Kantideval temple. The nearby ruins of the old Ratanpur fort also offer a glimpse into its past glory.  

Other Notable Shrines & Hidden Gems: Unveiling Local Treasures

Beyond the major temple towns, Chhattisgarh’s landscape is dotted with lesser-known but equally fascinating sacred sites, each holding unique stories and architectural features. These “hidden gems” often provide deeper insights into regional variations in art, local cults, and specific historical periods.

• Madku Dweep (Mungeli District): This serene island on the Shivnath River is an archaeological delight. Excavations have unearthed the remains of 19 temples, predominantly dating to the 11th-century Kalachuri period. Most of these temples (18 of them) face east, while one faces west. Shivalingas, Nandi bulls, and Ganesha idols are among the finds. What makes Madku Dweep particularly intriguing are the stone inscriptions discovered here, written in ancient Brahmi and the enigmatic Shankhalipi scripts, hinting at a rich, literate past that awaits further deciphering. It’s believed that devastating floods in the Shivnath River led to the destruction and burial of this ancient temple complex.  
• Deorbija Sita Devi Temple (Bemetara District): This 10th to 12th-century red sandstone temple is a captivating example of regional architecture. While now known as the Sita Devi Temple due to the later installation of a female deity’s idol (possibly Sita), historical analysis suggests it was originally dedicated to Lord Shiva. The temple’s garbha-griha doorway is richly carved, featuring river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna on the jambs, and panels depicting Ganesha, Uma-Maheshvara on Nandi, and several mithuna couples. A particularly fascinating lintel over the antarala (vestibule) shows the Navagrahas (nine planets) on one side and, on the other, seven figures representing the Pandavas (Yudhishthira, Arjuna, Bhima, Nakul, Sahadev) along with Kunti and Draupadi worshipping a Shivalinga. This Pandava iconography is a significant local theme also found at other Kalachuri sites like Janjgir and Ratanpur, suggesting a popular regional narrative.  
• Chandrahasini Devi Temple (Chandrapur, Sakti District): Located on the picturesque banks of the Mahanadi River, this temple is dedicated to Goddess Chandrahasini, an incarnation of Goddess Durga. While the current structure was significantly renovated in 2011 , the site has ancient roots. Legends abound: one tells of the goddess revealing herself to protect local villagers from invaders. Another popular tale recounts how King Chandrahas of Sambalpur dreamt of the goddess, who instructed him to build a temple for her at Dongri village. Pleased with his devotion, she declared that Dongri would henceforth be known as Chandrapur, and she as Chandrahasini (the goddess with a moon-like smile). A footprint of the goddess is also believed to be imprinted on a stone near the river, a site of local worship. The temple is a major pilgrimage site, especially during Navratri.  
• Deorani-Jethani Temples (Talagaon, Bilaspur District): These twin temples, dating to the 5th-6th century CE and attributed to the Sharabhapuriya dynasty, are named after two queens – Deorani (younger sister-in-law/wife) and Jethani (elder sister-in-law/wife). Though now in ruins, they offer crucial insights into early temple architecture. The Devrani temple, built of red sandstone, is more intact and predominantly showcases Guptan architectural style, while the Jethani temple exhibits Kushan influences. Both are built in the Nagara style with curvilinear towers. However, the most astonishing discovery here is a unique and colossal Rudra-Shiva statue. Standing about 7 feet tall and weighing around 5 metric tonnes, this sculpture is remarkable for its composition: the face and various body parts are intricately depicted by a multitude of creatures and animals – snakes, lizards, crabs, fish, peacocks, and human faces – a truly enigmatic and unparalleled representation, possibly with Tantric connotations.  

These sites, though perhaps less frequented than the grand temple complexes, are vital pieces of Chhattisgarh’s historical puzzle. They reveal local artistic idioms, unique iconographic representations, and archaeological clues like ancient scripts, all contributing to a richer, more nuanced understanding of the region’s diverse and layered past. For the curious traveler, they offer a chance to step off the beaten path and discover truly unique historical and spiritual treasures.

Whispers of the Wild: Tribal Legends and Living Heritage

Chhattisgarh is not just a land of ancient stones and forgotten empires; it is a vibrant tribal heartland, where indigenous communities have nurtured their unique cultures and traditions for millennia. Approximately one-third of the state’s population is tribal, making them not just a demographic segment but the very soul of Chhattisgarh. These communities, often residing in close harmony with the dense forests and rolling hills, have been the custodians of age-old customs, intricate art forms, and a profound understanding of nature. Their lives, traditionally lived in mud and bamboo houses, centered around cultivating small patches of land, foraging from the forest, and practicing animist rituals, reflect a deep connection to the land that sustains them.  

The presence of over 42 distinct tribal communities means that Chhattisgarh’s “history” is also very much its “present”. Their traditional knowledge systems, social structures, and artistic expressions are not relics of a bygone era but are part of a living, evolving heritage. This offers a unique travel experience where one can witness ancient traditions coexisting with modernity, though this interaction also brings challenges to the preservation of their unique ways of life. The tribal relationship with the environment, built on respect and sustainable use, holds valuable lessons for the contemporary world.  

Spotlight on Major Tribes: Stories, Beliefs, and Ways of Life

Let’s journey into the world of some of Chhattisgarh’s major tribal communities, exploring their fascinating origin myths, the deities they revere, and the distinctive customs and art forms that define them.

Gond Tribe:

The Gonds are the largest tribal group in Chhattisgarh and one of the largest in India, with a significant presence across many districts, including the historically rich Bastar region. Their societal structure is complex, with various sub-castes.  

• Origin Myths & Legends: The Gonds trace their ancestry to Pahandi Kupar Lingo (also known as Lingo Pen) and the primordial mother goddess Jangubai. A central creation story narrates how the first Gond children were born but then abandoned by their mother. Goddess Parvati rescued them, but her consort, Sri Shambhu Mahadeo (Shiva), imprisoned them in a deep cave for their unruly behavior. It was the great Gond cultural hero, Pahandi Kupar Lingo, who, with the divine assistance of Jangubai, eventually liberated the Gond ancestors. He led them out of the cave in four distinct groups, thereby establishing the foundational four-fold phratry system (social divisions) of Gond society. Lingo Pen is revered not just as a liberator but as the god of agriculture and fertility, the one who introduced the Gonds to the arts of civilized life, including farming and animal husbandry. His heroic deeds and teachings are recounted in the Gond epic, the “Lingo Kuda” or “Lingo Pata”. He is also credited by the Muria Gonds (a sub-group) as the founder of their unique Ghotul system.  
• Deities: The supreme deity in the Gond pantheon is Bara Deva (Great God), also known as Persa Pen or Persipen, considered the creator and governor of the universe. They also venerate other important deities like Bhimsen (a divine hero protecting the community), Danteshwari (goddess of the forest and protector, particularly revered in Bastar), Pharsa Pen (god of rain and weather), and Kesharpal (a guardian deity). Each clan has its own specific clan gods (Pen), and there’s a strong tradition of worshipping village guardian spirits and matriarchs, as well as nature spirits residing in trees, rivers, and mountains. Interestingly, some Gond communities also worship Ravana, whom they consider an ancestor-king and a dharmaguru. The Saja tree (Indian Laurel) is particularly sacred.  
• Customs & Art: The Gonds have a rich oral tradition, with the Pardhans, a sub-group, serving as hereditary bards and storytellers, preserving and narrating the myths and legends of the tribe. Gond painting is perhaps their most famous art form, internationally recognized for its vibrant colors, intricate patterns of dots and lines, and depiction of folklore, deities, animals, and the sacred relationship with nature. These paintings are not merely decorative but are a visual medium for storytelling and expressing their cosmology. The Ghotul system of youth dormitories, though more elaborately developed among the Muria Gonds, also exists in some Gond communities.  

The Lingo Pen legend is foundational to Gond identity. He is more than a deity; he is the architect of their culture, establishing social norms, agricultural practices, and spiritual institutions. Their art, especially painting, serves as a dynamic and colorful medium to keep these profound narratives alive for future generations.

Baiga Tribe:

The Baiga are a particularly fascinating tribe, found mainly in the central Indian forested regions, including the Kawardha, Mandla, Balaghat, and Shahdol areas of Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh. They are often referred to as Bhumiraja or Bhumijan, meaning “Lord of the soil” or “Son of the nature,” reflecting their profound connection to the earth. Traditionally, they were known as powerful “sorcerers, medicine men,” and priests, and some even believe themselves to be the original “kings and rulers of the whole earth”.  

• Origin Myths & Legends: The Baiga believe their mythical ancestors were Nanga Baiga (the naked Baiga man) and Nanga Baigin (the naked Baiga woman), who were born directly from Dharti Mata (Earth Mother). Nanga Baiga was said to possess immense magical powers and played a crucial role in helping Bhagavan (God) create the world and later in stabilizing it. One creation story tells of a time when the world was entirely covered by water. God, resting on a lotus leaf, created a crow from the dirt of his chest and sent it to find earth. The crow, guided by a wise tortoise, brought soil from the underworld, which God then used to form the land. To prevent the newly formed earth from shaking, God created the Agaria (iron-smelters) to make iron nails, and it was Nanga Baiga who hammered these nails into the four corners of the earth, securing it. Since then, the Baigas are known as the Earth’s protectors. They also have captivating folklore like “Elephants’ Lost Wings” and “The Baiga and the Tiger’s Tale,” which speak of their relationship with the animal kingdom and the forest.  
• Deities: Their primary reverence is for Dharti Mata (Earth Mother), and they also acknowledge Bhagwan and Bada Dev (Great God).  
• Customs & Art: Traditionally, the Baiga practiced a lifestyle of minimal clothing; women wore a lugra (a piece of cloth wrapped around the waist and chest), and men wore short dhotis or loincloths. Their most defining characteristic is their deep spiritual connection to the forest. Historically, they practiced Bewar or Dahiya (slash-and-burn or shifting cultivation), a practice they believed was divinely sanctioned. Crucially, the Baiga consider ploughing the earth a grave sin against Dharti Mata, as they believe it is like tearing her breast. This belief has profoundly shaped their traditional agricultural practices and their identity as Bhumijan. They are also renowned as traditional priests, healers, and medicine men, possessing extensive knowledge of forest herbs and medicinal plants.  

The Baiga’s origin myths and their traditional resistance to ploughing highlight an exceptionally deep and spiritual reverence for the Earth. They see themselves not just as inhabitants of the land but as its primary guardians, a role assigned to them at the dawn of creation. This sacred bond influences every aspect of their traditional life.

Muria Tribe:

The Muria are an Adivasi (indigenous) community, part of the larger Gondi people, primarily residing in the Bastar region, particularly in Kondagaon and Narayanpur districts. They are known for their traditionally homogeneous economic structure and a strong emphasis on collective work and community living.  

• Origin Myths & Legends: The name “Muria” is thought to derive from the Gondi word mur, which can mean “root” or “permanent,” possibly indicating their more settled nature compared to some other nomadic Maria groups. Like other Gonds, their most significant cultural institution, the Ghotul, traces its origin to the teachings and establishment by the cult-hero Lingo Pen.  
• Deities: Besides Lingo Pen, who is central to their Ghotul tradition, the Muria worship Sonkuwar Mata as a chief deity. Their society is divided into five phratries or broad social divisions, such as the Nagvans (Snake Race) and Kacchimvans (Tortoise Race), each associated with a totem animal that members are forbidden to harm or eat and must mourn if one dies.  
• Customs & Art: The Muria are most famous for their unique youth dormitory system known as the Ghotul.
  • The Ghotul System: This is far more than just a dormitory; it’s a highly organized socio-cultural and educational institution for all unmarried Muria boys (Chelik) and girls (Motiari). Membership is mandatory, and after a period of testing, initiates are given special titles. The Ghotul has elected leaders: the Sirdar for boys and the Belosa for girls. Within the Ghotul, young Murias learn about social responsibilities, tribal traditions, music, dance, and community living. It serves as a center for social and religious life. Historically, there were two types of Ghotul: an older, classical type where boys and girls formed more or less permanent pairs that could last until marriage (sometimes even cohabiting in the dormitory for years), and a more modern form where such exclusive associations were discouraged, and partners were expected to be changed regularly to prevent deep emotional attachments before marriage. The Cheliks and Motiaris have important roles in all village festivals, weddings (acting as acolytes and bridesmaids), and funerals (forming a choir). Their games and dances are central to village life. Anthropologist Verrier Elwin, who extensively studied the Muria, described the Ghotul as a place where “youth must be served, that freedom and happiness are more to be treasured than any material gain”.  
• Art: Muria art includes intricate wood carving, producing statues, decorative pillars, and masks, often adorning their Ghotuls and Devgudis (village shrines). A notable example is the wooden depiction of Chendru Mandavi, a Muria boy who gained international fame in the 1960s. Ghotul paintings, traditionally done on the mud walls of the dormitory, depicted scenes of their life, deities, and nature. While this tradition has somewhat declined with the modernization of Ghotul structures, some artists now create these paintings on canvas. Belgur Muria, Shankar Muria, and Pishadu Muria were among the first individually recognized Muria painters in the 1980s.  

The Ghotul, with its sacred origins in the Lingo Pen legend, stands as a remarkable indigenous institution. It is a sophisticated system for the education, socialization, and cultural transmission for Muria youth, fostering community cohesion and instilling tribal values. Its decline under modern influences represents a significant cultural shift for the Muria people.

Abhujmaria Tribe (“Hill Marias”):

Residing in the almost inaccessible, hilly, and densely forested region of Abhujmad (“the unknown highlands”) in Narayanpur, Bijapur, and Dantewada districts, the Abhujmaria are considered one of the most isolated and traditionally primitive tribal groups in Chhattisgarh.  

• Origin Myths & Legends: There are no formal historical records detailing their origin. However, local folklore tells of a Madiya Gond couple who, fleeing some social persecution or fear, sought refuge in the remote Abhujmad region. They married and settled there, and their descendants, living in this isolated terrain, came to be known as the Abhujmadiya. This origin story itself emphasizes their historic isolation.  
• Deities: The Abhujmaria pantheon includes Budhadeva, Thakur Dev (Tallubhet), Budhimai (or Budhi Dokri), and Lingopen. They also have various house gods categorized as Chota Pen, Bada Pen, and Manjhla Pen, with the specific Kul Devta (family/clan deity) varying by gotra (clan). Nature worship is also prevalent, with reverence for the Sun, Moon, rivers, mountains, earth, and snakes. Hindu deities are also acknowledged by some. The deity Loilungi is mentioned as being particularly related to their cultivation practices.  
• Customs & Art: Traditionally, the Abhujmaria were nomadic, practicing Penda (a form of shifting or slash-and-burn) agriculture, with their temporary agricultural sites called Kaghai. When the resources around one Kaghai were depleted, they would move to a new area. Due to government restrictions on Penda agriculture, many have now started settling in permanent villages and adopting settled farming, though their involvement in wage labor is still low. Their homes are typically small huts made of wood and mud with grass-thatched roofs, often consisting of a verandah (agha for meetings), a kitchen (angadi), and a storage room (lonu). The lonu is a sacred space, as it houses the Kul Devta. They have distinctive attire and elaborate silver or imitation silver jewelry for women. Their staple foods include rice, various millets (madia, kodo, kutki), maize, lentils, seasonal vegetables, and a variety of forest produce and hunted animals. Mahua (liquor from Mahua flowers) and Salfi (palm wine) are considered mandatory beverages in all their rituals, from birth to death. Abhujmaria society is patriarchal and organized into several ancestral dynasties, further divided into exogamous gotras called goti. They have elaborate rituals for birth, marriage (where the bride’s family travels to the groom’s village, and offerings called suk are made), and death (where important individuals are honored with a carved wooden memorial pillar called anal gadhaya or mengrahal). A traditional caste panchayat system, headed by a supreme regional authority called the Manjhi, governs their social affairs. Both men and women enjoy dancing and singing. Folk dances like Kaksar (a festival dance), Gedi dance (performed on stilts), and Rilo are performed during festivals and fairs, accompanied by drums, reflecting their life and customs. Their folk songs include Dadriya (love songs), Relogeet, and songs for pujas, marriages, and births. Godana (tattooing) is an important form of adornment for Abhujmaria women, considered a permanent jewel.  

The Abhujmaria exemplify a community whose culture has been profoundly shaped by their isolated forest environment. Their traditional lifestyle, social structure, and spiritual beliefs are all finely tuned to this unique ecological niche. The ongoing shift from nomadic Penda cultivation to settled agriculture represents a significant adaptation to external pressures and changing times.

Halba Tribe:

The Halba tribe is found across central India, including Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha. They are primarily an agricultural community, with many also traditionally involved in weaving (where they are known as Koshti). They speak the Halbi language, an Indo-Aryan dialect that has become a lingua franca in the Bastar region. The Halba are often considered a mixed tribe, with ancestral links to both Gond and Hindu communities.  

• Origin Myths & Legends: A prominent origin myth directly links the Halbas to the establishment of a royal lineage in Kanker. According to this legend, they accompanied an Oriya king, who was afflicted with leprosy, to the Sihawa jungles where he intended to retire. One day, the king witnessed a miracle: his white hunting dog jumped into a spring and emerged with its skin changed to a copper-red color. The king bathed in the same spring and was cured of his leprosy. Though he wished to return to Orissa, the Halbas persuaded him to remain in this new land, and he became the ancestor of the kings of Kanker. As a result, the Halbas traditionally served as household servants (Karpardar) and priests of the Sihawa temple, which was said to have been built by the first king over the miraculous spring. This legend provides a narrative for their historical social standing and connection to specific royal families and religious sites.  
• Deities: The Halba worship regional deities, including Danteshwari Mata (the principal deity of Bastar), Maili Mata, Gusain-Pusain, Budhadeo, and Kunwardeo.  
• Customs & Art: Historically, Halbas also served as paik (militia) or soldiers in the armies of the Bastar and Ratanpur kings, which likely improved their social standing and led to them becoming an important landholding community in Bastar. They were involved in the Halba Rebellion, an early uprising against encroaching external powers. In terms of art, the Halba are known for their traditional crafts, including handwoven textiles, pottery, beadwork, intricate wood carvings, and metalwork. They celebrate major regional festivals like Bastar Dussehra, Holi, and Diwali with traditional dances and music. Their historical roles suggest a greater degree of interaction and assimilation with mainstream societal and political structures compared to some of the more isolated tribes.  

Oraon (Kurukh) Tribe:

The Oraon, who call themselves Kurukh, are a significant Dravidian-speaking tribal community found primarily in Jharkhand, but also with substantial populations in Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and West Bengal. The name “Oraon” might derive from the Kurukh words Ur (man) and On (our), signifying their collective identity, or possibly from a mythical Oraon king named Karakh.  

• Origin Myths & Legends: The Oraon have a rich corpus of creation myths. Central to their spiritual thought is Dharmes (or Dharme), regarded as the supreme deity, often associated with the sun, and the moral arbiter of the universe. Dharmes is believed to have created the world and all living beings. One detailed creation story recounts that in the beginning, the entire world was covered with water. Dharmes created a Kilkila bird and ordered it to fetch a seed from Landu Gandu, who lived in Patalpur (the underworld) beneath the water. With this seed, Dharmes created the earth (Sat-pati-raji). He then molded human beings from clay and left them in the sun to dry. However, Dharmes’ divine horse, Hansraj, trampled these clay forms, fearing that humans would fill the earth and constantly ride it. To counter this, Dharmes created dogs to chase away the horse. He then put blood into the clay forms, and they came to life as the first human beings. Another oral tradition speaks of a mythical ancestor named Sardar Oraon, who is said to have led the Oraon community during their migration from northern India to the Chotanagpur plateau, where they settled and established their villages and social institutions.  
• Deities: Besides the supreme being Dharmes, the Oraon venerate Chala-Pacho Devi (also known as Sarna Devi), the mother goddess who is believed to reside in the sacred Sal tree and protects the tribe. They also worship a host of nature spirits, collectively called Bonga, who inhabit forests, rivers, mountains, and fields, and govern the fertility of the land and the well-being of the community. Ancestral spirits are also highly revered and are believed to continue influencing family fortunes and moral order.  
• Customs & Art: A cornerstone of Oraon religious practice is the veneration of the Sarna, a sacred grove of Sal trees that serves as a communal shrine to nature deities and ancestral spirits. Rituals and sacrifices are performed here by the village priest, known as the Pahan. The Sarhul festival (also called Khaddi by the Kurukh, meaning “flower”) is their most important festival, celebrated in spring to mark the new year, the blossoming of the Sal trees, and symbolically, the marriage of the Earth and the Sun. It involves offerings of Sal flowers, community dancing, and feasting. The Karma festival is another significant celebration. Music and dance are integral to Oraon culture, serving as expressions of spirituality, social cohesion, and storytelling.  

The Oraon creation myth, emphasizing Dharmes’ role in establishing cosmic and moral order, and their deep reverence for nature embodied in Sarna worship, provides a strong spiritual foundation for their ecological consciousness and communal life.

Other Tribes (Brief Mentions):

• Kanwar: This tribe, found widely across Chhattisgarh (excluding Bastar), traces its origin to the Kauravas of the Mahabharata epic, believing themselves to be descendants of that ruling clan who fled after the great war. They worship deities like Dulha Deo and Sagai Devi.  
• Bhatra: Located in Bastar and the bordering areas of Odisha, the Bhatra have a legend that they were among the few who accompanied King Purushottam Dev of Bastar on a pilgrimage to Jagannath Puri. Upon their return, the king, pleased with their service, bestowed upon them sacred threads and addressed them as “Bhadr” (civilized), from which their tribal name is said to have originated. They hold Mahua trees in great reverence, and marriage ceremonies are often performed around them.  
• Dhurwa (Duruwa/Dharua): Found mainly in the Adhar and Chintgarh areas of Bastar, the Dhurwa are known for their bravery and historically served as palace guards. The famous tribal warrior Gundadhur, who led a significant rebellion (the Bhumkal) in Bastar in 1910, belonged to this tribe. They celebrate a month-long festival called Gurgal, known for its musical importance.  
• Bison Horn Maria (Dandami Maria): This iconic tribe of Bastar is instantly recognizable by the spectacular headgear adorned with bison horns (now usually from domesticated buffalo) and plumes of feathers, worn by men during their ceremonial dances. They prefer to call themselves Dandami Maria. Their culture is a blend of animistic beliefs and some Hindu customs. Clan gods play an important role in protecting the village from occult forces. Dancing is an integral part of their worship and social life, often performed during festivals, agricultural cycles, and marriages.  

Myths and Folklore: Weaving the Fabric of Life

The lives of Chhattisgarh’s tribal communities are interwoven with a rich tapestry of myths, legends, and folklore. These narratives are not mere stories but are vital charters that explain their origins, validate their social customs, define their relationship with the natural and supernatural worlds, and transmit traditional knowledge across generations.

Creation Stories & Ancestral Tales: As seen with the Gonds, Baigas, and Oraons, creation myths often feature a supreme creator deity and heroic ancestral figures who establish the tribe’s place in the world and their societal norms. These stories instill a sense of shared identity and purpose.

Legends of the Land: The natural environment – specific forests, rivers, mountains, and even individual trees – is often imbued with sacredness. These places are frequently linked to the actions of deities, ancestral events, or the presence of powerful spirits. The Sarna sacred groves of the Oraon or the Saja tree revered by the Gonds are prime examples of this deep spiritual connection to the landscape.  

The Mahua Tree: More Than Just a Drink

Among the many elements of nature revered by Chhattisgarh’s tribes, the Mahua tree (Madhuca longifolia) holds a particularly special place. It is often called the “Tree of Life,” especially by the Gonds, and its significance permeates their culture, economy, and spirituality.  

• Cultural and Spiritual Significance: The Mahua tree is considered sacred and is integral to numerous rituals, from birth ceremonies to death rites, among tribes like the Abhujmaria and Bhatra. There’s even a legend of Mahuwa Devi, a goddess believed to reside within the tree, protecting the forest and its inhabitants. Its flowers are offered in pujas, and the tree itself is worshipped. According to Gond mythology, the Mahua flower is a divine entity that never truly dries up; a little water can bring it back to life.  
• Culinary Uses (Beyond Alcohol): While the fermented drink made from Mahua flowers is well-known, the tree’s bounty extends far beyond liquor. The flowers themselves are a vital food source, especially historically. They are collected, sun-dried, and stored for year-round use. They can be roasted, boiled, or pounded into powder to be mixed with other foods or baked into cakes. Some traditional dishes include Mahua flower bhaji (a savory vegetable preparation) , latta (a sweet made by pounding mahua with molasses or jaggery and parched grains), mahaur (mahua mixed with wheat flour or besan), asur khichdi (rice cooked with mahua flower flour), asur pitha, kuldum (deep-fried puris stuffed with mahua), and puran poli sweetened with mahua. The Gonds celebrate Chaitrai Mahaparv (New Year) by sampling the freshest mahua flowers of the season and also have a Mahua Tyohar (festival of Mahua). The fleshy fruit of the Mahua tree, which ripens after the flowers fall, is also a coveted seasonal ingredient used in various preparations.  

The Mahua tree is a cornerstone of tribal existence in Chhattisgarh. It’s a provider of sustenance, a spiritual symbol, an economic resource, and a central element in their festive and ritualistic life. This holistic relationship with a single natural resource beautifully underscores the tribal philosophy of living in harmony with nature.

Art from the Heart: Tribal Crafts and Their Stories

The handicrafts of Chhattisgarh are not mere objects; they are an indispensable part of life, vibrant expressions of culture, and a testament to the incredible artistry of its tribal communities. Many of these art forms are deeply rooted in their traditional lifestyle, rituals, beliefs, and intimate connection with the natural world. As you travel through Chhattisgarh, you’ll encounter these beautiful crafts, each telling a unique story.  

Dhokra (Bell Metal Art):

This ancient art of metal casting, using the lost-wax (cire perdue) technique, is one of India’s most iconic craft traditions, with a history stretching back over 4,000 to 5,000 years, with connections even traced to the Indus Valley Civilization. In Chhattisgarh, Dhokra is primarily practiced by the Ghadwa (or Ghasia) community of Bastar and the Jhara community of Raigarh. The name “Dhokra” itself is believed to come from the Dhokra Damar tribes, who were traditional nomadic metalsmiths.  

• History and Legend: Dhokra artifacts were originally created for royal families and for tribal communities’ own ritualistic and utilitarian needs, including idols for worship and ceremonial items. A charming local legend from Bastar tells of how, about 300 years ago, the ruler of Bastar was presented with a specially crafted Dhokra necklace for his wife. So mesmerized was he by its beauty that he honored the craftsman with the title of “Ghadwa,” derived from the word ghalna (to melt and work with wax) or ghadna (to shape).  
• Motifs and Symbolism: Dhokra art is a powerful narrative medium, encoding tribal cosmology, social life, and reverence for nature in enduring metal. The motifs are inspired by nature, mythology, and everyday tribal life. Common figures include:
  • Animals: Elephants (symbolizing wisdom, strength, and royalty) , horses (representing movement, valor, and power) , owls (associated with prosperity, vigilance, and sometimes death) , and tortoises (depicting longevity, femininity, and linked to Lord Vishnu’s Kurma avatar).  
  • Deities: Figures of local and Hindu deities like Lord Ganesha, Goddess Durga, and Goddess Lakshmi are popular. The Danteshwari temple motif also appears.  
  • Tribal Life: Human figurines engaged in daily activities like hunting, dancing, or grinding corn, as well as depictions of tribal symbols, ritual lamps, and containers. Each Dhokra piece is unique, as the mold is broken after casting. The art form is not just decorative; it embodies the beliefs, practices, and life experiences of the artisans and their communities.  

Pithora Paintings:

Pithora paintings are vibrant, ritualistic wall murals traditionally created by the Rathwa and Bhilala tribes, primarily in Gujarat and western Madhya Pradesh. While some sources mention Pithora paintings in the context of Chhattisgarh and Bastar , the detailed descriptions of the primary deity (Baba Pithora or Pithoro Dev) and the specific rituals involving Lakhara (painters) and Badwa (priest/shaman) are strongly associated with the Rathwa traditions of the aforementioned regions. It’s possible that Pithora art has influenced or been adopted by some Chhattisgarhi tribes, or that there are local variations. For the traveler, understanding its core tradition is key.  

• Purpose and Ritual: These paintings are not merely for decoration; they are sacred acts, visual prayers offered to Baba Pithora (the chief god of the Rathwas, often considered a nephew of the rain god Indra). They are created on the main walls of houses, typically dividing the verandah from the kitchen, a space considered sacred to Pithoro. The painting is done to fulfill vows made in times of difficulty (like illness or poor harvest) or to seek blessings for peace, prosperity, and fertility. The entire process is a ritual, supervised by the Badwa, and involves specific ceremonies, chanting, and music, transforming the wall into a sacred space.  
• Motifs and Deities: Pithora paintings are a complex system of symbolic representation, bringing the divine and mythological world into the home. Horses are central and ubiquitous, representing the steeds of gods, goddesses, and ancestors. The paintings depict a pantheon of deities including Baba Ganeh (Ganesha), Baba Ind (Indra), Pithoro Dev and his consort Pithori Rani, Rani Kajal (Pithora’s foster mother), Raja Bhoj on his elephant, and mythical farming couple Abho Kunbi and Mathari. Scenes often include the marriage procession of Pithoro, creation myths, daily tribal life, forests, animals, and celestial bodies like the sun and moon. A characteristic wavy line often divides the plane, with the upper section representing the world of gods. Orange dots, called Tipna, are applied with fingers after the painting is complete. Each Pithora painting is unique, with the artist often leaving a distinct mark.  

Loha Shilp (Wrought Iron Craft):

This distinctive craft, also known as wrought iron art, is unique to the Bastar region of Chhattisgarh and has evolved from the traditional iron-smelting and tool-making skills of local tribal communities, particularly the Gond and Maria. Kondagaon, Umargaon, and Gunagaon are prominent centers for this craft.  

• Origin and Evolution: The Bastar region is rich in iron ore. Initially, ironsmith communities catered to the tribes’ needs by forging farming implements, hunting tools (like arrowheads and knives), and jungle-cutting tools. Over time, this utilitarian skill beautifully evolved into an artistic form. A significant turning point was the Gond tribe’s belief system. They traditionally worshipped ‘Budha Dev’ (an ancestral or forest deity) as residing in the Saja tree, a symbol of strength. As they understood the strength and permanence of iron, they began to believe that their God also resided in iron. This led to the placement of iron tridents, spears, and chains as religious symbols on cemented platforms built under sacred Saja trees. Ironsmiths then started experimenting with these religious art forms.  
• Technique: Loha Shilp is characterized by its raw, dark forms. The artisans primarily use recycled scrap iron. The process involves heating the iron and then beating it repeatedly into the desired shape; it does not involve casting or molding. Unnecessary portions are cut away, and the piece is filed to remove sharp edges. A varnish coat is often applied to enhance luster.  
• Motifs and Symbolism: Early artistic expressions included wrought iron lamps (diya), often decorated with animal motifs, and figurines of Budha Dev riding a horse. As the art evolved and gained exposure, artisans began experimenting with more diverse forms and sizes. Common motifs now include local deities, various animals depicted in dynamic postures, human figures (often musicians or people engaged in daily activities), elements of nature, and ancestral spirits. Popular items include lamps, candle stands, effigies, toys, and decorative figurines. Loha Shilp thus showcases a fascinating journey from practical tool-making to profound religious and artistic expression, deeply rooted in local Gond beliefs about the sacredness of iron and their deities.  

Godna (Traditional Tattoo Art):

Godna is an ancient and deeply significant art form practiced by several tribal communities in Chhattisgarh, notably the Gond and Baiga. Traditionally, it is an art done by women, for women.  

• Significance and Motifs: Godna is far more than mere body adornment; it is a visual language, a permanent marker of identity, life stages, and traditional beliefs. Different motifs hold specific significances. Some are believed to have curative or protective powers, while others are applied according to rites of passage in a woman’s life, such as reaching puberty, marriage, or childbirth. The tattoos are highly valued for these ritualistic meanings and perceived healing properties. The specific motifs and their placement on the body can vary from one tribe to another; for instance, Baiga Godna motifs differ from those of the Bhil or Gond tribes, underscoring its role in defining group identity.  
• Evolution: While traditional Godna is tattooed onto the skin using natural pigments derived from the forest, in modern times, particularly in villages like Jamgala in Surguja district, Godna artists have adapted their skills to paint these traditional tattoo motifs onto textiles. They use natural colors, sometimes combined with acrylic paints for better stability on fabric. This adaptation showcases the resilience and evolution of the art form, allowing these ancient designs to find new mediums of expression and reach wider audiences.  

Terracotta and Wood Carving:

These crafts, utilizing readily available natural materials like clay and wood, are fundamental expressions of tribal life, spirituality, and storytelling in Chhattisgarh.

• Terracotta: Terracotta pottery and figurines are an integral part of the state’s traditional craft. They are symbolic of regional customs, tribal traditions, and often represent the aspirations, collective joys, and even stages of human life within the community. Clay icons, such as those of Matri Devi or Mai (Mother Goddess – with local names like Khanda Mai, Banjarin Mai, Kankalin Mai), are often placed on village borders to ward off evil spirits, appease unseen forces, and seek blessings for health and prosperity. Among the Baigas and Gonds of the Mandla region, figures with distinct features are made and sometimes placed in fields or on rooftops as protection against witchcraft. Sacred spaces under trees often feature votive terracotta offerings of animals like horses and elephants. Terracotta masks are also popular and form a part of community celebrations and festivals like Chher Chhera, used in folk plays and dances. Even utilitarian items like grain storage bins are embellished with carved animal and human figures.  
• Wood Carving: Wood carving is another ancient art form. Among the Gonds, ancestral wall paintings in their homes, often on wooden panels or directly on walls, are said to maintain a living link to their Mesolithic heritage, telling timeless human stories. The Muria tribe is particularly renowned for its wood carving skills, creating intricate statues, memorial pillars, decorative items for their Ghotuls, and expressive masks. The depiction of the Muria boy Chendru Mandavi is a famous example of this art. Carved wooden pillars are also installed in Devgudis (village shrines).  

These crafts, born from the earth and the forest, are not just decorative; they are deeply embedded in the spiritual and social fabric of tribal life, serving utilitarian, ritualistic, and storytelling purposes, and offering a profound connection to their ancestral heritage.

To give you a clearer picture of this artistic landscape:

Table: Chhattisgarh’s Tribal Artistry

Archaeological Treasures: Unearthing Chhattisgarh’s Antiquity

Chhattisgarh’s soil is like the pages of an ancient manuscript, holding within it the tangible evidence of civilizations that rose and fell, of bustling trade routes, and of diverse cultural practices that flourished over millennia. The state is exceptionally rich in ancient art, archaeological sites, and cultural remnants that offer invaluable windows into its past. Excavations across the region continue to unearth relics that rewrite and enrich our understanding of Indian history.  

Let’s delve into some of the key archaeological sites that beckon history enthusiasts and curious travelers alike:

Sirpur (Mahasamund District): A Multi-Religious Metropolis Revisited

As we’ve already touched upon in our temple trail, Sirpur is not just a collection of ancient temples but a vast archaeological site of immense international importance. Once a thriving capital city (ancient Sripura) from the 5th to the 12th centuries CE, it was a major commercial and religious hub for the Dakshina Kosala kingdom, particularly under the Sharabhapuriya and Somavamshi dynasties. The sheer scale of the ruins is breathtaking, with evidence of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain presence coexisting harmoniously. In fact, archaeological discoveries suggest Sirpur was one of the largest Buddhist centers in ancient India, possibly even more extensive than the famed Nalanda.  

Key Archaeological Findings at Sirpur:

• Urban Planning: Excavations have revealed a well-planned city with residential areas, a sprawling palace complex, a 6th/7th-century market area, and even a snana-kund (ritual bathing tank).  
• Religious Structures: Beyond the famous Lakshmana Temple (a 7th-century brick marvel), Rama Temple (with an early star-shaped platform), and the active Gandheshwar Temple, archaeologists have unearthed numerous other Shiva temples (around 22), Vishnu temples (around 5), extensive Buddhist Viharas (monasteries like Ananda Prabhu Kuti Vihara and Swastika Vihara – about 10 in total), and Jain Viharas (around 3).  
• Sculptures and Bronzes: Sirpur was a significant workshop for bronze sculptures in early medieval India. The Buddhist bronze artwork excavated here is considered among the finest of its era, showing artistic links with centers like Ellora and Ratnagiri. Numerous stone sculptures related to all three faiths have also been found.  
• Inscriptions: Stone and copper plate inscriptions discovered at Sirpur have been crucial in dating the monuments and understanding the patronage, religious beliefs, and socio-political conditions of the time. An inscription at Ananda Prabhu Kuti Vihara, for instance, details the sponsorship by the Hindu king Sivagupta Balarjuna for the Buddhist monastery.  
• Chronological Depth: Archaeological layers at Sirpur trace human settlement from as early as the mid-1st millennium BCE, through the Gupta period, the rule of local dynasties, and up to the late medieval period, with finds like Sultanate-era coins indicating its continued occupation or significance.  

Sirpur’s archaeological landscape, meticulously excavated and studied by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), offers a profound understanding of urban life, religious syncretism, and artistic achievements in ancient Central India. The ASI museum at the Lakshmana Temple premises is a must-visit to see some of these invaluable finds.  

Malhar (Bilaspur District): An Ancient Town of Dynasties and Trade

Malhar, a historically significant town near Bilaspur, is another archaeological gem that whispers tales of a rich and ancient past. Its strategic location, bound by the Arpa, Lilagar, and Shivnath rivers, and situated on an ancient trade route connecting Kausambi (near Prayagraj) to Puri (Odisha), likely contributed to its prominence and wealth over centuries. Archaeological excavations and findings here have revealed a continuous cultural sequence from around 1000 BCE to the Kalachuri period (1300 CE).  

Key Archaeological Findings at Malhar:

• Dynastic Imprints: Malhar has yielded evidence of rule by various dynasties. Discoveries include punch-marked coins, Satavahana coins (with elephant symbols), and even a clay seal bearing the legend “Maharaja Mahendrasya,” identified with a ruler mentioned in Samudragupta’s Allahabad Pillar Inscription, suggesting Gupta influence. The Sharabhapuriyas and Somavanshis also left their mark, followed by the Kalachuris, who built temples here.  
• Religious Significance: Remains of Shaivite, Vaishnavite, Jain, and Buddhist structures and sculptures have been found, indicating its importance as a multi-religious center. Notable temples include the Pataleshwar Temple (with 1000-year-old copper plate inscriptions and ancient coins found ), the Didneshwari Temple, and the Devari Temple. A Kalachuri inscription mentions the construction of a Shiva temple named Kedara during Jajalladeva II’s reign, and another refers to a Shiva-Dhurjati temple built by Brahmadeva under Prithvideva II.  
• Unique Local Coinage: A significant discovery is a large number of coins from the 1st century BCE to the 4th century CE bearing a distinct “Malhar symbol.” This suggests that Malhar minted its own local currency for regional circulation, a practice that continued for over four centuries under different ruling dynasties, indicating the town’s sustained economic importance.  
• Pottery and Artifacts: Excavations have revealed different periods of occupation, marked by distinct pottery types (black and red ware, red ware, black-slipped ware), terracotta figurines (like a notable head of a boy), beads, pendants with Brahmi inscriptions, and other everyday objects that paint a picture of ancient life.  
• Sculptural Finds: Fragments of various sculptures, including a Nandi in human form, a seated Ganesha, and Buddhist vihara remains, have been unearthed.  

Malhar’s archaeological landscape, though perhaps less sprawling than Sirpur’s, provides crucial evidence of early urbanism, trade networks, and the religious pluralism that characterized ancient Dakshina Kosala.

Pachrahi (Kabirdham District): Unveiling Medieval Glories

Pachrahi, located on the banks of the Hap River in Kabirdham district (about 45 km from Kawardha), is a relatively more recently excavated site that has yielded spectacular findings, significantly illuminating the medieval history of Chhattisgarh, particularly the era of the Phani Nagvanshi and Kalachuri dynasties. Excavations conducted by the Directorate of Culture and Archeology, Raipur (2007-2011) have revealed a site rich in cultural and religious antiquities.  

Key Archaeological Findings at Pachrahi:

• Dynastic Evidence: Pachrahi is considered a homeland of the Phani Nagvanshi dynasty, who ruled as feudatories of the Kalachuris of Ratanpur from the 9th to mid-14th century CE. Crucially, excavations here have unearthed gold coins of Nakkad Dev, and silver coins of Sridhar Dev and Yasoraj Dev of the Phani Nagvanshi dynasty, providing the first numismatic evidence for these rulers in the South Kosala region. A gold coin of the Kalachuri king Pratapmalla Deva was also a unique find. These coin discoveries have opened a new chapter in understanding the political and economic conditions of the era.  
• Temple Remains and Sculptures: The site has yielded remains of temples associated with Saivism, Vaishnavism, and Jainism, indicating a flourishing multi-religious settlement. Sculptural remains, including a notable Parvati stone plaque datable to the 6th/7th century CE, have been found.  
• Fortifications and Structures: Evidence of fortification walls and residential structures has been uncovered, suggesting a well-established settlement.  
• Prehistoric Link: Interestingly, the excavations have also yielded prehistoric tools from the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods, and even fossils, indicating a very long history of human presence in the area, predating the medieval settlements by millennia.  
• Museum: A site museum has been established at Pachrahi to display the excavated antiquities, making them accessible to researchers and the public.  

Pachrahi’s findings are particularly significant because they provide concrete evidence for local dynasties like the Phani Nagvanshis, filling gaps in the medieval history of Chhattisgarh and offering insights into their economic life, cultural practices, and settlement patterns.

Rock Art Sites: Chhattisgarh’s Prehistoric Canvas

Chhattisgarh’s historical narrative stretches back even further than its kingdoms and temples, into the realm of prehistory, vividly captured in ancient rock art. The state boasts numerous rock shelters and caves adorned with paintings and engravings created by early humans, offering glimpses into their lives, beliefs, and environment. These sites are primarily concentrated in districts like Raigarh, Surguja, Kanker, and Bastar.  

• Singhanpur Caves (Raigarh District): Among the earliest reported rock art sites in India, discovered by C.W. Anderson in 1910. The paintings here, often in red ochre, depict hunting scenes, animal figures (like wild buffaloes, tortoises), human figures, and geometric designs. A famous depiction is the “ladder man”. These are believed to date back to the Mesolithic period.  
• Kabra Pahar (Raigarh District): Another significant site near Raigarh, Kabra Pahar features well-preserved paintings in red ochre, depicting tortoises, wild buffaloes, human figures, and geometric patterns. Some paintings here have unfortunately been damaged by vandalism.  
• Other Raigarh Sites: The Raigarh region is particularly rich, with sites like Basnajhar (over 300 paintings of elephants, monkeys, mermaids, hunting scenes), Bhanwarkhol (mermaids, wild buffaloes, palm impressions), Botalda (Mesolithic period animal and human figures), Chapamada (animal figures, birds, war scenes from a later historical period), Karmagarh (multicolored human and animal figures), and Ongna (distinctive large humped bulls and decorated human headgear).  
• Surguja and Kanker: Surguja district has yielded Upper Paleolithic sites and rock art. Kanker district is also known for its rock art sites, with around 18 reported locations. The Edka caves near Narayanpur (Bastar region) contain rock art with early historic motifs.  
• Themes and Significance: The rock art typically depicts scenes of hunting, dancing, daily activities, animal figures (both hunted and revered), and abstract or geometric symbols. These paintings provide invaluable information about the prehistoric environment, fauna, human social organization, and magico-religious beliefs of the early inhabitants of Chhattisgarh.

These archaeological sites, from sprawling ancient cities to remote rock shelters, collectively narrate the millennia-long human story of Chhattisgarh, a story of evolving cultures, flourishing arts, complex societies, and enduring spiritual quests. For any traveler keen on history, these sites offer an unparalleled journey into the deep past.

The People of the Land: Lifestyle, Traditions, and Flavors

Chhattisgarh’s history is not just about kings and monuments; it’s equally about the everyday lives of its people, their traditions, occupations, and the unique cultural tapestry they’ve woven over centuries. The state’s population is a blend of various communities, with a significant tribal presence that has deeply influenced its character.  

A Glimpse into Chhattisgarhi Lifestyle: Then and Now

Historically, the lifestyle in Chhattisgarh was predominantly agrarian, centered around the cultivation of rice, its staple crop, earning it the moniker “Rice Bowl of India”. About 80% of the population has traditionally lived in rural areas, with agriculture and small-scale industries based on forest produce forming the mainstay of their livelihood. The people are generally known for their simplicity, hard work, and a deep connection to their traditional customs and beliefs. This is reflected in their food habits, festivals, attire, and folk traditions.  

Traditional Occupations: Beyond agriculture, traditional occupations have included:

• Handicrafts: As discussed earlier, various communities specialized in crafts like bell metal work (Dhokra), wrought iron (Loha Shilp), terracotta, wood carving, and bamboo work, often passing these skills down through generations.  
• Weaving: The Kosa silk industry has been significant, with communities skilled in producing these fine fabrics. Cotton weaving was also prevalent.  
• Forest-based Livelihoods: For tribal communities, forests have been a vital source, providing food (fruits, tubers, leaves, honey), medicinal herbs, and materials for housing and crafts. Hunting and fishing were also traditional subsistence activities.  
• Priestly and Bardic Roles: Certain communities or individuals within tribes held specialized roles, such as priests (Pahan among Oraons, Baiga priests), shamans, healers, and bards (like the Pardhans among Gonds) who preserved and transmitted oral traditions.  

Traditional Dress and Ornaments: Chhattisgarhi traditional attire reflects ethnic diversity and a love for adornment.

• Women’s Attire: The most common traditional garment for women is a saree-like drape called “Pata,” typically four meters long, conventionally white with a deep red or maroon border known as the “aal border”. It’s worn in styles like “ganthi marna” (knotted at the shoulder) or “Chendra” (a practical drape for daily chores, especially among Bastar women). The common way of wearing a saree is the “kachhora” style. Sarees, locally called Lugda, are worn with a Polkha (blouse). These are often handwoven with geometric or nature-inspired motifs. Batik and tie-dye (Bandhani) techniques have also been prominent in fabric making.  
• Men’s Attire: The conventional lower garment for men is the “Pichhori,” a cloth wrapped around the waist, shorter in length, reaching up to the knees. A more ornamented version, the “dulha pichhori,” is worn by grooms. The upper garment is typically a kurta, often accompanied by a chaddar or shawl, especially for ceremonial purposes or warmth. An “angochha” or angochhi (a narrow piece of fabric) is used as a headband for protection against heat. Plain dhotis or kansbandhi are also worn.  
• Ornaments: Jewelry is integral to the traditional dress of both men and women, often with strong tribal influences.
  • Women: Silver necklaces like “suta” (thin chain), bead necklaces called “koundhi” or “kardhan” (a broad silver waist belt, also believed to help young mothers avoid post-pregnancy bloating), “balis” (hoops) and “khuntis” for earrings, silver arm bangles (“kadha” or “ainthi”), and “bichhiya” (toe rings, a symbol of marriage for women) are common. Ornaments made from beads, feathers, and cowries are also part of tribal costumes.  
  • Men: May wear “koundhi” (bead necklaces) and “kadhah” (bangles) during traditional ceremonies and festivals.  

Traditional Housing: Traditional housing in Chhattisgarh, especially in tribal areas, reflects a deep understanding of the local climate and available materials.

• Materials: Homes were typically constructed using locally sourced materials like bamboo, mud, thatch, and stones. Walls were often made of mud, sometimes mixed with rice husk and cow dung for plastering, and roofs were thatched or made with redland clay tiles supported by wooden slabs.  
• Design: Houses were often built without formal plans, using body measurements (like hands) for dimensions. A common pattern was linear building with a central courtyard, promoting social interaction and providing a private open space. Otlas (outdoor raised platforms) were multifunctional spaces for sitting, working, and socializing. Kothis (granaries) were essential structures for storing grains, designed for air circulation. Due to the hot climate, windows were often minimal or absent, with ventilation occurring through roof gaps or perforated roof sections. Gond houses in Chhattisgarh, for example, are often made from bamboo and clay, offering cool interiors.  

Evolution and Modern Influences: While these traditions form the bedrock of Chhattisgarhi culture, modern influences have inevitably brought changes.  

• Livelihoods: While agriculture remains important, there’s an increase in wage labor and migration to urban areas for work, sometimes threatening traditional practices.  
• Dress: While traditional attire is still worn, especially in rural areas and during festivals, modern clothing is common in daily life, particularly in urban centers. However, traditional styles like the Kachhora saree are being adapted into fabrics that are easier to handle, and techniques like Batik are used on modern garments.  
• Housing: Traditional mud construction is increasingly being replaced by brick-and-cement pakka makan (permanent houses), often seen as a status symbol and for easier maintenance, though this can sometimes lead to a loss of climatically adapted designs.  
• Social Customs: The Ghotul system of the Muria tribe, for instance, has seen a decline due to modern education, societal pressures, and sometimes suspicion from authorities.  

Despite these changes, there’s a growing awareness and effort, both from communities and governmental/non-governmental organizations, to preserve and promote Chhattisgarh’s unique cultural heritage, including its traditional occupations, art forms, and sustainable living practices. The tribal culture, with its deep connection to nature and community, continues to be a defining feature of Chhattisgarh, offering a resilient counterpoint to rapid modernization.  

The Flavors of Chhattisgarh: A Culinary Journey

The cuisine of Chhattisgarh is a delightful reflection of its agrarian roots, tribal heritage, and the bounty of its forests. It’s characterized by simplicity, the use of fresh, locally sourced ingredients, and cooking methods that often retain the natural flavors of the food. Rice is the undisputed staple, featuring in myriad forms, alongside lentils, green leafy vegetables, and unique forest produce. While influenced by neighboring states, Chhattisgarhi food has its own distinct identity.  

Staple Foods and Ingredients:

• Grains: Rice (Chawal) is paramount, used for everything from plain boiled rice to flour for rotis and dumplings. Millets like Jowar (sorghum), Bajra (pearl millet), Kosra (foxtail millet), and Mandia (ragi/finger millet) are also traditional staples, especially in tribal areas. Wheat (Gehu) is also consumed.  
• Lentils (Dal): Various lentils like Urad dal (black gram) and Chana dal (split Bengal gram) are widely used.  
• Vegetables: A variety of green leafy vegetables (bhaji) are integral, including lal bhaji (red amaranth), cholai bhaji (amaranth greens), chech bhaji, kanda bhaji (onion greens/shoots), kheksi (spiny gourd), kathal (jackfruit), kochai patta (colocasia leaves), kohda (pumpkin), and bohar bhaji (Cordia dichotoma blossoms). Bamboo shoots (kareel or baans) are a special delicacy, especially in Bastar.  
• Forest Produce: Wild mushrooms, tubers, tamarind, and tendu leaves are foraged and used in cooking.  
• Spices: Generally, the cuisine uses minimal spices, emphasizing natural flavors. Common spices include mustard seeds, cumin, turmeric, green chilies, ginger, garlic, and curry leaves.  

Iconic Chhattisgarhi Dishes You Must Try:

• Muthia: These are savory steamed dumplings made from rice batter, seasoned with spices. Being steamed, not fried, they retain their delicate flavors and are a popular, healthy breakfast or snack, especially among rural folk.  
• Aamat: Considered the “Sambhar of Bastar,” Aamat is a tangy and delectable mixed vegetable stew, often featuring bamboo shoots (Gondi/Kareel). Traditionally, it’s cooked in bamboo hollows over a fire, which imparts a unique aroma and flavor, a practice still prevalent in remote tribal areas of Bastar.  
• Chila: A gift from Chhattisgarh to the rest of India, Chila is a savory pancake or crepe made from rice flour batter, sometimes mixed with urad dal. It’s easy to cook, delicious, and a staple breakfast item, best enjoyed with green chutney.  
• Faraa (also Phara or Pitha): These are desi-style steamed rice flour dumplings, often described as similar to momos or South Indian kozhukattais. The rice dough, sometimes with a filling of spiced lentils (like chana dal) or simply seasoned with coriander, is shaped (often into oblong or cylindrical forms) and steamed. They make a light, healthy, and satisfying snack or breakfast. A sweet version called Doodh Faraa also exists.  
• Bara: A Chhattisgarhi variant of the South Indian Vada, Bara is a light, crispy, deep-fried snack made from fermented urad dal, mixed with various vegetables and spices. It requires minimal oil for some versions, making it relatively healthy. Baras are a must-serve during festivals, village fairs, and especially at weddings in the Bastar region.  
• Bhajia: A popular street food, these are crispy fritters made with gram flour (besan) and various fillings like green chilies (mirchi bhajia), onions (pyaaz bhajia), or potatoes (aloo bhajia). Perfect with a cup of tea and spicy chutney.  
• Sabudana ki Kichdi: While popular across India, especially during fasts, this dish made from soaked sago pearls, potatoes, peanuts, and mild spices is a comforting and important part of Chhattisgarhi cuisine.  
• Bafauri: A healthy and protein-packed steamed snack made from chana dal (Bengal gram flour) mixed with various vegetables and spices. Since it’s steamed and uses negligible oil, it’s a light and nutritious option.  
• Dubki Kadhi: A tangy and flavorful yogurt-based curry thickened with gram flour, featuring savory gram flour dumplings (dubki means ‘dive’, as the dumplings dive into the curry). It’s a hearty dish typically served with rice.  
• Chousela: These are puris (deep-fried bread) made from rice flour, a simple yet delicious accompaniment to meals.  
• Bore Baasi: A quintessential Chhattisgarhi summer food, Bore Baasi consists of leftover cooked rice soaked overnight in water, plain curd, or buttermilk. It’s eaten the next morning, usually with raw onions, pickles, or green chilies. This dish is incredibly cooling, hydrating, and light, perfect for the hot climate.  
• Tikhur: Tikhur is a local variety of arrowroot, and its extract is used to make a cooling drink or a halwa-like sweet.
• Chapda Chutney (Red Ant Chutney): An exotic and famous tribal delicacy from the Bastar region, this chutney is made from red ants and their eggs!. It’s known for its tangy, spicy flavor and is believed to have medicinal properties. This is a true taste of the wild for adventurous foodies.  

Sweets and Beverages:

• Khurmi: A popular festive sweet, especially made during the Pola festival (where farmers worship bulls). These are deep-fried, mildly sweet pastries made from wheat flour and jaggery, sometimes with coconut and cardamom.  
• Gulgula (also Bobra): Sweet, deep-fried fritters made from wheat flour and jaggery, often enjoyed with tea.  
• Dehrori: A festive dessert made from fermented rice, fried and then soaked in sugar syrup.  
• Tilkut/Tirgur: A sweet treat made from sesame seeds (til) and jaggery (gur), often enjoyed during festivals like Makar Sankranti.  
• Mahua: The flowers of the Mahua tree are not only eaten but also famously fermented to create a traditional alcoholic beverage, a staple during tribal gatherings and celebrations.  
• Salfi: A local palm wine with a slightly tangy taste, popular in Bastar.  
• Landa: A fermented rice beer, another traditional tribal brew, especially consumed during gatherings in Bastar.  

Traditional Cooking Methods and Influences: In Bastar and other tribal areas, food is often cooked using traditional wood-fired methods, in clay or iron vessels, which impart a unique earthy flavor. Meals are sometimes served on Sal or Tendu leaves, emphasizing sustainability and tradition. Food preservation techniques like sun-drying and smoke-drying vegetables, mushrooms, fish, and meat are common, ensuring year-round availability, especially for forest-dependent communities. Fermentation is also a key technique, used for dishes like Bore Baasi and beverages like Landa and Mahua.  

While there’s mention of Maharashtrian cuisine being influenced by its rulers , and the impact of Mughlai cuisine in broader India during the Middle Ages , specific influences of historical dynasties like the Kalachuris or Marathas on the evolution of Chhattisgarhi cuisine are not extensively detailed in the provided information. However, the long periods of settled agriculture and local governance likely solidified the regional preference for rice and locally available produce, forming the bedrock of the cuisine we see today. The tribal culinary practices, with their emphasis on forest produce and unique ingredients like red ants or specific tubers, represent an ancient food heritage that continues to thrive.  

Festival Foods: Festivals are a time for special culinary preparations.

• Hareli: Celebrated at the beginning of the monsoon and agricultural season, special dishes like dhokla and khandvi and chutneys are prepared. Traditional Chhattisgarhi dishes like gulgula bhajia, faraa, and chila are also common.  
• Bastar Dussehra: This 75-day festival sees a culinary spread that includes aamat (bamboo shoot stew), faraa, and Mahua-based foods like mahua laddoos and the traditional Mahua drink.  
• Pola: Khurmi is a signature sweet for this harvest festival.  
• Diwali and Holi: Feature elaborate meals with traditional sweets like Petha (ash gourd candy) and Kusli (deep-fried pastry with sweet fillings).  

Chhattisgarhi cuisine offers a journey into a world of simple, wholesome, and unique flavors, deeply connected to the land and its people. Trying these dishes is an essential part of experiencing the state’s rich cultural tapestry.

Planning Your Journey Through Time: Practical Tips for Travelers

Embarking on a journey to explore Chhattisgarh’s rich history, ancient temples, and vibrant tribal culture can be an incredibly rewarding experience. To make your trip smooth and enriching, here are some practical tips:

Best Time to Visit: The ideal time to explore Chhattisgarh, including its historical sites like Sirpur, Ratanpur, Bhoramdeo, and the tribal regions of Bastar, is during the winter months, from October to March.  

• Weather: During this period, the weather is pleasant and mild, with temperatures typically ranging from 10∘C to 27∘C. This makes it comfortable for outdoor activities, temple visits, and exploring archaeological sites. Mornings can be foggy and days cool, especially in peak winter (November to February).  
• Monsoon (July to September): While the monsoon brings lush greenery, heavy rainfall can make travel difficult, especially to remote areas and national parks. Some caves, like Kutumsar in Kanger Valley National Park, may be closed due to flooding. However, if you appreciate misty landscapes and local delicacies, this season has its own charm.  
• Summer (April to June): Summers can be extremely hot and humid, with temperatures soaring between 35∘C and 45∘C or even higher. This period is generally not recommended for extensive travel, although it might be a good time for wildlife sightings in sanctuaries as animals gather near water sources.  

Reaching Chhattisgarh and Getting Around:

• By Air:
  • Swami Vivekananda Airport (Raipur): This is the primary international airport, well-connected to major Indian cities like Mumbai, Delhi, Nagpur, Kolkata, etc.. It’s the main gateway for accessing most historical and tribal regions.  
  • Bilaspur Airport & Raigarh Airport: These are other airports in the state providing regional connectivity.  
  • Maa Mahamaya Airport (Ambikapur, Surguja): Recently inaugurated, this airport aims to improve connectivity to the remote tribal district of Surguja and neighboring areas, potentially boosting tourism to places like Mainpat and the Ramgarh caves.  
• By Rail:
  • Chhattisgarh has a good rail network. Bilaspur Junction is the zonal headquarters of the South East Central Railway and is a major railhead.  
  • Raipur Junction is another important railway station with frequent trains.  
  • Mahasamund Railway Station is relatively close to Sirpur.  
• By Road:
  • The state has well-maintained roads and national highways connecting its cities and towns, as well as linking it to adjacent states.  
  • Regular bus services are operated by Chhattisgarh State Road Transport Corporation (CSRTC) and private operators, including luxury overnight buses from neighboring states.  
• Local Transport:
  • Within Cities/Towns: Auto-rickshaws and cycle-rickshaws are common for short distances. Taxis are also available.  
  • Connecting Sites: Local buses connect smaller towns and tourist spots. For visiting remote historical sites or tribal villages, hiring a private vehicle (taxi or car rental) is often more convenient and flexible. Several tourist bus services and travel agencies operate in major cities like Raipur.  
  • Accessibility to Remote Areas: While connectivity is improving, some remote areas, especially in insurgency-affected regions like parts of Bijapur, have historically had limited public transport. However, recent initiatives are starting to connect even the last villages with bus services, enhancing accessibility.  

Accommodation: Chhattisgarh offers a range of accommodation options:

• Cities (Raipur, Bilaspur, Jagdalpur): You’ll find hotels catering to various budgets, from luxury to mid-range and budget-friendly guesthouses.
• Near Tourist Sites:
  • Kawardha: Palace Kawardha is a heritage hotel offering a royal stay experience near Bhoramdeo.  
  • Kanger Valley National Park & Chitrakote: Eco-resorts and forest rest houses (booking in advance is essential) provide rustic stays amidst nature.  
  • Bastar: Bastar Jungle Resort is an option for those exploring the tribal region.  
• Homestays: In some tribal areas, community-based tourism initiatives may offer homestay experiences, providing an authentic cultural immersion.  

Cultural Etiquette and Respectful Travel:

• Visiting Temples:
  • Dress Modestly: Cover shoulders and knees. Some temples might require men to go shirtless or wear specific attire. It’s always good to observe and follow local customs.  
  • Remove Footwear: Always remove your shoes before entering the temple premises.
  • Circumambulation: If you see devotees walking clockwise around the main shrine (parikrama), you may join if you wish.
  • Offerings: If you wish to make an offering (like flowers or fruit), give it with your right hand or both hands to the priest. Accept any prasadam (blessed food) offered by priests with your right hand.  
  • Photography: Photography might be restricted inside the sanctum sanctorum or of certain deities. Always look for signs or ask for permission.
  • Respect Sanctity: Avoid touching shrines or statues unless invited by a priest. Maintain a respectful demeanor, especially during prayers or rituals. Do not point your feet towards deities.  
• Interacting with Tribal Communities:
  • Hire Local Guides: This is highly recommended, especially in Bastar and other tribal regions. Local guides, sometimes from the communities themselves, can facilitate respectful interaction, interpret customs, share folklore, and ensure you don’t inadvertently offend.  
  • Ask for Permission for Photography: This is crucial. Always ask before taking photographs of people or their homes/rituals. Respect their decision if they decline.  
  • Dress Modestly: When visiting tribal villages, wear modest clothing that aligns with their cultural norms.  
  • Gifts: Avoid offering money or gifts indiscriminately as it can disrupt community values. Small, thoughtful gifts like books, craft supplies, or farming tools, presented respectfully through community leaders, might be appreciated if appropriate.  
  • Respect Traditions: Be an observant and respectful guest. Avoid staring or intruding during private moments like meals or rituals. Do not question or criticize their practices.  
  • Support Local Economy: Purchase handicrafts directly from artisans or local cooperatives to ensure fair compensation and support their livelihoods.  
  • Communication: Learning a few basic greetings in Hindi or the local dialect (if possible) can go a long way in building rapport.  
• Permits for Tribal Areas:
  • Generally, for most tribal areas in Chhattisgarh accessible to tourists, no special permits are required for Indian tourists beyond standard entry fees for national parks or specific sites.  
  • For foreign tourists, while Chhattisgarh (including Bastar) is generally more open than some other tribal states in India (like parts of the Northeast or Odisha where PVTG areas require express permission from the District Magistrate ), it’s always advisable for foreign nationals to check the latest regulations with the Ministry of Home Affairs (Foreigners Division) or the Indian embassy in their country before planning visits to remote tribal villages, especially in sensitive areas. Some tour operators specializing in tribal tours state that photography is allowed with permission and there are no entry fees for villages and markets, implying general accessibility.  
  • Kanger Valley National Park: Requires an entry permit, obtainable at the park’s entrance or online through the Chhattisgarh Forest Department. It’s compulsory to take an official guide with every vehicle.  

General Travel Tips:

• Health: Carry basic medicines, a first-aid kit, and mosquito repellent, especially when visiting forests or rural areas. Ensure routine vaccinations are up-to-date. Be cautious with street food and drink bottled or purified water. Medical facilities can be limited in remote areas.  
• Safety: While Chhattisgarh is generally safe for tourists, exercise usual precautions. Avoid traveling alone at night in isolated areas. Be aware of your surroundings, especially in crowded places and markets. Some parts of Central and East India, including areas within Chhattisgarh, have advisories regarding Naxalite activity; it’s wise to check current travel advisories and stick to known tourist circuits or travel with reputable guides in such regions.  
• Connectivity: Mobile network coverage can be patchy in remote and forested areas. Keep cash handy, as digital payment options may not be available everywhere, especially in rural markets.  
• Shopping: Look for authentic tribal handicrafts like Dhokra metal art, wrought iron items, terracotta, wood carvings, bamboo crafts, Godna art on textiles, and Kosa silk sarees. Buying directly from artisans or government emporiums (like Shabari Emporium in Raipur or handicraft markets in Jagdalpur) helps support local communities.  
• Food: Be adventurous and try the local Chhattisgarhi cuisine! From savory chila and faraa to unique tribal dishes like bamboo shoot curry and the famous (or infamous!) chapda chutney, there’s a lot to explore. Don’t miss out on local beverages like Mahua and Salfi if you get a chance (consume responsibly).  
• Respect Nature: When visiting national parks, waterfalls, or caves, follow park regulations, do not litter, and maintain a safe distance from wildlife.  

Echoes Through Time: The Enduring Legacy of Chhattisgarh

Our journey through Chhattisgarh has taken us from the mythical landscapes of Dakshina Kosala, trodden by epic heroes, to the grand courts of powerful dynasties like the Kalachuris and Nagvanshis. We’ve marveled at the spiritual serenity of ancient temples, their stones whispering tales of devotion and artistry, and glimpsed the vibrant, resilient spirit of the tribal communities who are the original custodians of this land.

What emerges is a picture of a region far more complex and historically rich than often perceived. The name “Chhattisgarh” itself, whether signifying “thirty-six forts” or the “land of the Chedis,” points to a past shaped by both military might and enduring dynastic rule. The architectural grandeur of Sirpur, with its harmonious blend of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain influences, speaks of a remarkably tolerant and cosmopolitan society in ancient India. The intricate carvings of Bhoramdeo, the “Khajuraho of Chhattisgarh,” reveal not just artistic prowess but a fascinating interplay between mainstream traditions and local tribal beliefs. Temples like Danteshwari in Bastar stand as powerful symbols of this syncretism, where a Shakti Peetha has become the socio-cultural epicenter for tribal communities and royal patronage alike.

The tribal heritage of Chhattisgarh is not a relic of the past but a living, breathing entity. The Gonds, Baigas, Murias, Abhujmarias, Halbas, Oraons, and many other communities have preserved ancient customs, profound connections to the land, and unique art forms like Dhokra, Loha Shilp, Godna, and vibrant paintings. Their origin myths, centered around figures like Lingo Pen or Nanga Baiga, and their reverence for nature, embodied by the sacred Mahua tree, offer deep insights into alternative worldviews and sustainable living. The Ghotul system of the Murias, a unique youth institution, showcases indigenous methods of education and social organization.

The archaeological sites, from the urban sprawl of Sirpur and Malhar to the prehistoric rock art shelters of Raigarh and Kanker, provide tangible links to millennia of human endeavor. They tell stories of early settlements, flourishing trade, religious evolution, and artistic expression.

Even the cuisine of Chhattisgarh, with its emphasis on rice, local greens, forest produce, and unique tribal delicacies like bamboo shoot curry or red ant chutney, is a testament to its history and environment. Traditional cooking methods and festival foods further enrich this culinary landscape.

As a traveler, Chhattisgarh offers more than just sightseeing. It offers a chance to connect with a deep and diverse history, to witness the enduring power of faith etched in stone, and to experience the warmth and richness of living tribal cultures. It’s a land that invites curiosity, rewards exploration, and leaves an indelible mark on the soul. Whether you’re tracing the footsteps of Lord Rama, marveling at Kalachuri temple architecture, or respectfully learning about tribal traditions, Chhattisgarh promises a journey into the very heart of India’s ancient and ever-evolving story. So, pack your bags with a spirit of adventure and respect, and come discover the whispers of time in this incredible land.