The History of Varanasi: India’s Oldest Living City

1. Varanasi: Whispers from Eternity – Welcome to the Oldest Living City!

Varanasi, a city that seems to float on the banks of the sacred Ganges, beckons travelers with an aura of profound antiquity and spiritual magnetism. It is a place where, as some say, even the stones tell stories and the river hums ancient hymns. The American author Mark Twain was so captivated that he famously declared, “Benaras is older than History, older than Tradition, older even than Legend, and looks twice as old as all of them put together”. To step into Varanasi is to step into a realm where millennia of human history, faith, and culture converge, offering an experience unlike any other. The air itself feels thick with the aroma of incense, the distant chime of temple bells, and the murmur of prayers, creating a sensory tapestry that hints at the city’s deep, spiritual undercurrents. One might wonder what it feels like to walk through a city that has witnessed the rise and fall of empires, the birth of philosophies, and the ceaseless flow of human existence.  

The very essence of Varanasi’s profound allure lies not merely in its immense age, but in its remarkable status as a continuously inhabited urban center. While many ancient cities around the globe have crumbled into ruins or been abandoned over time, Varanasi has remained a vibrant, breathing hub of human activity and cultural expression for thousands of years. This unbroken thread of life is what truly distinguishes it. Archaeological findings and historical records point to a continuous human presence, with a cultural and religious lifestyle that has remained remarkably consistent for millennia. This continuity suggests an extraordinary resilience, an ability to adapt and endure through the vicissitudes of time, making Varanasi more than just an archaeological treasure; it is a dynamic, living testament to the persistence of human culture and spirituality. For the traveler, this means an opportunity not just to see ancient structures, but to experience a way of life that has been preserved and practiced for centuries.  

What’s in a Name? From Kashi to Varanasi – The City of Light

The names attributed to this ancient metropolis are themselves a journey through its layered history and identity. The name “Varanasi” is traditionally believed to be derived from its location between two Ganges tributaries: the Varuna River, which still flows in its northern part, and the Assi, now a small stream in the south near Assi Ghat. The old city is nestled on the northern banks of the Ganges, cradled by these two watercourses.  

However, its most ancient and spiritually resonant name is “Kashi.” Derived from the Sanskrit verbal root kaś-, meaning “to shine,” Kashi is revered as the “City of Light” or the “luminous city as an eminent seat of learning”. This name was used by pilgrims even in the Buddha’s time and remains widely popular today, evoking its historical importance as a center of wisdom and spiritual illumination. Hindu religious texts further adorn the city with a multitude of Sanskrit epithets, each revealing a facet of its sacred persona: Kāśikā (“the shining one”), Avimukta (“never forsaken by Shiva”), Ānandakānana (“the forest of bliss”), Rudravāsa (“the place where Rudra/Shiva resides”), and Mahāśmaśāna (“the great cremation ground”).  

This multiplicity of names is more than a collection of synonyms; it reflects the city’s complex evolution and the diverse ways it has been perceived and venerated across different eras. The shift from the spiritual and mythological connotations of Kashi to the more geographically descriptive Varanasi, and the colonial-era usage of “Benares” , all point to different phases in its long history. Each name carries a fragment of its story, offering a lens through which to understand its enduring significance and the layers of cultural and spiritual meaning attributed to it over millennia.  

Older Than History: Unpacking the “Oldest Living City” Claim

Varanasi’s claim as one of the world’s oldest continuously inhabited cities is a cornerstone of its identity, supported by a fascinating blend of mythology and archaeology. Hindu tradition often dates the city’s founding by Lord Shiva to around 5,000 years ago , while some Puranic accounts suggest an even more unfathomable antiquity, describing Kashi as enduring for “hundreds of Brahma’s lifetimes,” with each lifetime spanning 4.3 billion years.  

While such mythological timelines are beyond empirical verification, archaeological evidence provides a more tangible, yet still impressive, picture of its ancient past. Excavations conducted in 2014 unearthed artifacts dating back to 800 BCE. Further discoveries at Aktha and Ramnagar, sites in the city’s vicinity, have yielded artifacts from as early as 1800 BCE, supporting the view that the area was inhabited during this remote period. Excavations at Rajghat have also uncovered items like ochre-painted utensils from 800 BC and black polished pottery from 400 to 600 BC. More recent scientific research, including studies by institutions like IIT Kharagpur, has even suggested evidence of human settlement in the Varanasi area dating as far back as 4500 BC.  

What truly solidifies its title as the “oldest living city” is the uninterrupted continuity of human presence and its remarkably unchanged cultural and religious lifestyle over these vast stretches of time. Unlike many other ancient urban centers that were eventually abandoned or whose original character was lost, Varanasi has remained a vibrant, continuously populated city, preserving its core traditions. This resilience in the face of natural calamities and human crises is a key part of its unique identity. The ancient stories and Puranic accounts are not just abstract legends; they are often rooted in physical locations within the city where archaeological evidence of ancient human activity has been found. This convergence of myth and material evidence creates a powerful narrative of antiquity, offering visitors a profound sense of connection to a deeply rooted past.  

2. The Dawn of Divinity: Mythological Roots and Spiritual Heartbeat

The spiritual identity of Varanasi is inextricably linked to Lord Shiva, one of the principal deities in Hinduism. Its very foundation is steeped in divine legends that establish its sacred geography and its paramount importance as a pilgrimage site.

The City of Shiva: Legends of its Divine Founding

According to prominent Hindu mythology, Lord Shiva himself founded Varanasi. A particularly dramatic legend recounts a conflict between Lord Brahma (the creator) and Lord Shiva. In this cosmic dispute, Shiva, in a display of supreme power, tore off one of Brahma’s five heads. As was customary, the victor carried the vanquished adversary’s head. When Shiva arrived in the city of Kashi, the head of Brahma is said to have dropped from his hand and disappeared into the earth, instantly sanctifying the spot and marking Varanasi as an exceptionally holy site.  

Another powerful belief is that Varanasi is the very place where the first Jyotirlinga – an infinite, fiery pillar of light through which Shiva manifested his supremacy over other gods – pierced the earth’s crust and blazed towards the heavens. This event further consecrates the city as a primary center of Shaivite worship. Adding to its mystical aura is the Puranic concept of Kashi being held aloft on Shiva’s trident (Trishul). It is believed that during Pralaya (the cosmic dissolution at the end of an eon), when the entire world is submerged, Kashi remains protected, resting safely on Shiva’s trident. This is why the city is also known as Avi Mukta Kshetra – the place “never forsaken” by Shiva. These founding myths are not mere folklore; they are the bedrock of Varanasi’s sacred identity, transforming every inch of its soil into hallowed ground for millions of devotees and explaining its revered status as the “abode of Lord Shiva”.  

A Gateway to Moksha: Varanasi’s Sacred Place in Hinduism

One of the most profound beliefs associated with Varanasi is its power to grant Moksha – liberation from the endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara). It is deeply ingrained in Hindu faith that anyone who dies within the sacred precincts of Kashi attains Moksha, irrespective of their past deeds or social standing. This promise of ultimate spiritual release makes Varanasi a unique and highly sought-after pilgrimage destination, especially for those in the later stages of life.  

Varanasi is recognized as one of the seven sacred cities, or Sapta Puri, in Hinduism, which are believed to be givers of liberation. The others are Ayodhya, Mathura, Haridwar, Kanchipuram, Avanti (Ujjain), and Dvārakā. The Mahabharata, the great Hindu epic, also recounts that the Pandava princes, protagonists of the epic, visited Kashi in search of Lord Shiva to atone for the sins they had committed during the Kurukshetra War. The potent promise of Moksha is a powerful spiritual draw, shaping Varanasi’s identity as the ultimate pilgrimage site. This belief has a tangible impact on the city’s socio-religious fabric, influencing its demographics, its economy (with services related to death and last rites), and the very atmosphere of places like the cremation ghats.  

The Kashi Vishwanath Temple: A Beacon of Faith Through Ages

At the spiritual heart of Varanasi stands the Kashi Vishwanath Temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva, who is worshipped here as Vishwanath or Vishveshwara, meaning the “Ruler of the Universe.” It is one of the twelve Jyotirlingas, the most sacred abodes of Shiva, making it a site of immense religious importance for Hindus. The temple’s distinctive golden spires, which gleam in the sunlight, are symbolic of Varanasi’s enduring spiritual significance and its moniker as the “Golden Temple”.  

For devotees, obtaining darshan – the auspicious sight of the deity enshrined within the temple – is believed to cleanse sins and pave the path towards Moksha. The temple has a long and tumultuous history, marked by repeated destruction and reconstruction, which will be explored later. However, its spiritual pre-eminence has remained a constant, drawing pilgrims for centuries.  

For those planning a visit, the Shri Kashi Vishwanath Temple Trust manages the temple and provides information for pilgrims.

• Address: Chief Executive Officer, Shri Kashi Vishwanath Temple Help Desk, CK 37/40,41,42 Bansphatak, Varanasi-221 001.  
• Phone: +91-7080292930; WhatsApp: +91-6393131608; Travel & Stay assistance: +91 6201269560.  
• Email: [email protected], [email protected]. The temple is generally open 24 hours a day, 365 days a year , though specific timings for various aartis (ritual worship ceremonies) and darshan should be confirmed through official channels, such as the temple’s website, which also offers services like booking for Sugam Darshan (easy viewing) and various poojas like Rudrabhishek. The temple is not just a place of worship; it is a potent symbol of Hindu faith that has withstood the ravages of time and history. Its very existence today, after numerous attempts at its erasure, stands as a powerful testament to the resilience and continuity of faith in Varanasi, making its story integral to understanding the city’s spirit.  

3. Ancient Cradle of Knowledge and Enlightenment

For millennia, Varanasi has not only been a beacon of spirituality but also a pre-eminent center of learning and philosophical discourse, earning its ancient name Kashi, the “City of Light,” in part due to its role as an “eminent seat of learning”.  

The Gurukul Legacy: Varanasi as a Premier Center of Vedic Learning

The ancient Indian system of education, known as the Gurukul system, flourished during the Vedic period, and Varanasi was one of its most important hubs. In these residential schools, students, known as Brahmacharis or Satyanveshi Parivrajakas (truth-seeking wanderers), would come from distant lands to live with and learn from their gurus (teachers). Knowledge, primarily of the Vedas, Upanishads, and other sacred texts, as well as various arts and sciences, was imparted through oral traditions within a disciplined environment. By the time Gautama Buddha visited Varanasi around 500 BC, the city was already renowned for its advanced state of education, religion, and spirituality, a level of fame that would have taken centuries, if not millennia, to achieve. Pre-Buddhist literature also extols Varanasi’s scholarly environment.  

This ancient tradition of learning has not entirely faded. The Sampurnanand Sanskrit Vishwavidyalaya, a university founded in 1791, stands today as a leading institution for the study of Sanskrit, the Vedas, and the Upanishads, attracting scholars and students from across the globe. It is said that Varanasi is home to over 3,000 Sanskrit schools and hosts around 23,000 scholars dedicated to preserving and propagating this ancient wisdom. This demonstrates a remarkable continuity; the city’s reverence for knowledge has adapted and persisted from the ancient Gurukuls to modern academic institutions, making Varanasi a place where ancient texts are not just relics of the past but are still studied with profound dedication.  

Sarnath: Where the Buddha’s Wheel of Dharma First Turned

A short distance from the bustling heart of Varanasi lies Sarnath, a serene expanse that holds immense significance for Buddhists worldwide. It is here that one of the most pivotal moments in human spiritual history unfolded.  

The First Sermon and its Enduring Impact: After attaining enlightenment under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, Gautama Buddha chose the tranquil Deer Park, known as Mrigadava, in Sarnath for his first discourse. Around 528 BCE, he delivered his first sermon, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma), to his first five ascetic disciples: Kaundinya, Assaji, Bhaddiya, Vappa, and Mahanama. This seminal event, often referred to as the “First Turning of the Wheel of Dharma,” laid the foundation for Buddhist philosophy by expounding the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path – the core tenets leading to the cessation of suffering and the attainment of Nirvana. The sangha, or monastic community, was also first convened here.  

Exploring Sarnath’s Sacred Structures: The landscape of Sarnath is dotted with ancient stupas, monasteries, and temples that testify to its flourishing as a major Buddhist center from the 3rd century BCE to the 12th century CE.

• Dhamek Stupa: This imposing cylindrical stupa, standing approximately 43.6 meters (128 feet) high and 28 meters (92 feet) in diameter, is believed to mark the exact spot where the Buddha delivered his first sermon. Originally founded by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka in 249 BCE, it was likely enlarged and encased in its present form during the Gupta period in the 5th century CE. It is considered a dhatu-garbha stupa, meaning it once enshrined relics.  
• Chaukhandi Stupa: Located slightly away from the main complex, this terraced brick stupa, built during the Gupta period (4th to 6th century CE), commemorates the place where the Buddha met his first five disciples. The octagonal tower atop it was a later addition, built by the Mughal Emperor Akbar in 1588 to honor his father Humayun’s visit to the site.  
• Ashoka Pillar: Erected by Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE, only fragments of this polished sandstone pillar remain at its original site. Its magnificent Lion Capital – featuring four back-to-back lions – which originally surmounted the pillar and supported a large Dharma Chakra (Wheel of Law), is now famously India’s National Emblem and is housed in the Sarnath Archaeological Museum.  
• Mulagandha Kuti Vihar (Ancient Ruins and Modern Temple): The ruins of the ancient Mulagandha Kuti Vihar mark the spot where the Buddha is said to have spent his first rainy season retreat. A modern temple, also named Mulagandha Kuti Vihar, was built in 1931 by the Maha Bodhi Society with donations from Buddhist communities worldwide. It enshrines sacred bone relics of the Buddha and features beautiful frescoes depicting his life.  
• Dharmarajika Stupa: Though only its foundations remain, this stupa is significant as one of the few pre-Ashokan stupas at Sarnath, later enlarged by Ashoka.  
• Garden of Spiritual Wisdom: A more recent addition, this tranquil garden offers a peaceful space for reflection, with exhibits and sculptures conveying the essentials of Buddhist teachings.  

Must-Visit: Sarnath Archaeological Museum Established in 1910, this museum is indispensable for understanding Sarnath’s rich past. It houses an invaluable collection of antiquities unearthed from the site, dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 12th century CE.

• Highlights: The iconic Lion Capital of Ashoka, the serene and masterfully carved sandstone sculpture of the Buddha Preaching his First Sermon (Gupta period, 5th century CE), and numerous other Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain artifacts.  
• Address: Archaeological Site Museum, Sarnath Station Rd, Sarnath, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh 221007, India.  
• Phone: 0542 2595095.  
• Website: www.sarnathmuseumasi.org.  
• Visiting Hours: Generally 9:00 AM to 5:00 PM. It is typically closed on Fridays. Travelers are advised to check the official website for the most current timings and weekly closure day.
• Entry Fee: A nominal entry fee is charged, with children below 15 years often granted free entry. Current rates should be verified.

Sarnath’s historical connection to Buddha’s first sermon has transformed it from a mere archaeological site into a powerful global pilgrimage destination. It draws Buddhists and spiritual seekers from all corners of the world, making it a symbol of peace, the dissemination of wisdom, and a vital hub for international Buddhist engagement. The site’s inclusion on UNESCO’s tentative World Heritage list underscores its global importance.  

Whispers of Jainism in Kashi

While Hinduism and Buddhism are the most prominent spiritual traditions associated with Varanasi and its environs, Sarnath also holds a connection to Jainism. There is a Jain temple in Sarnath dedicated to Shreyansanath, the eleventh Tirthankara, who is believed to have been born in the vicinity. The Sarnath Archaeological Museum also houses images of Jain Tirthankaras, such as Parshvanatha and Vimalanatha, found during excavations. This presence, though less dominant in the overall narrative, points to the region’s historical role as a crucible for multiple Indic (Dharmic) faiths. It showcases a complex tapestry where different spiritual traditions coexisted, shared sacred spaces, and engaged in philosophical interactions, painting a richer, more layered picture of Varanasi’s ancient spiritual ecosystem.  

4. Through the Tides of Time: Dynasties, Invasions, and Resilience

Varanasi’s journey through history has been a dramatic saga of flourishing kingdoms, devastating invasions, and an indomitable spirit of resilience. Its strategic location and profound religious importance made it a coveted prize and a frequent target.

Early Kingdoms: The Gahadavala Dynasty’s Reign

From the latter half of the 11th century to the mid-13th century, the Gahadavala dynasty was a prominent ruling power in northern India, and Varanasi served as one of their key centers. The significance of the city to this dynasty is underscored by the fact that the majority of their epigraphic records, or inscriptions, have been discovered in Uttar Pradesh and were issued from Varanasi itself.  

The dynastic power was consolidated under rulers like Chandradeva (circa 1089–1103 CE), who successfully established control over Varanasi, Ayodhya, Kannauj, and even Indrasthaniyaka (modern Delhi). His successor, Govindachandra (circa 1114–c. 1155 CE), was a powerful monarch who further expanded the kingdom’s influence eastward into parts of Bihar. Govindachandra’s queen, Kumaradevi, a devout Buddhist, is credited with patronizing the construction or restoration of the Dharma Chakra Jina Vihar, a large monastery at Sarnath, showcasing a degree of religious pluralism within the ruling family. Later, Maharaja Jayachandra Gaharwar (reigned circa 1170-1194 CE), the last powerful king of this dynasty, is noted for constructing a grand temple, identified by some scholars as the original Vishweshwar (or Siddheshwar) temple, at the site now known as Gyanvapi. The Gahadavalas, therefore, did not merely rule over Varanasi; they actively wove it into the political and cultural fabric of their kingdom, making it an administrative and religious capital. This period of indigenous rule and cultural development established a foundation that would soon be profoundly challenged.  

The Shadow of the Sultanates: Eras of Destruction and Defiance

The late 12th century marked a turning point with the advent of Turkic invasions from the northwest. The campaigns of Muhammad Ghori led to the defeat of prominent Rajput rulers, including Prithviraj Chauhan in 1192, and subsequently, Jayachandra of Kannauj (and Varanasi) at the Battle of Chandawar in 1194. Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Muhammad Ghori’s general who later became the first Sultan of the Mamluk dynasty (the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, established around 1206 CE), spearheaded these conquests in the region.  

In 1194 CE, Aibak’s forces sacked Varanasi, unleashing a wave of destruction. Historical accounts suggest that nearly one thousand temples in the city were demolished, including the magnificent Vishwanath temple believed to have been built or patronized by the Gahadavalas at the Gyanvapi site. It is recorded that mosques were often raised on the foundations of these destroyed temples, utilizing their debris – a symbolic act of conquest and assertion of a new religious order. This period initiated a long and painful cycle of destruction and rebuilding for Varanasi’s sacred sites.  

Despite the devastation, the city’s spirit of devotion remained unbroken. There are accounts of the Kashi Vishwanath temple being rebuilt by a Gujarati merchant during the reign of Sultan Iltutmish (1211–1266 CE), Aibak’s successor. However, this respite was not to last. The temple faced further demolitions. Razia Sultana (1236-1240 CE) is mentioned in some accounts as having constructed a mosque on the temple site. Later, during the rule of the Sharqi Sultans of Jaunpur in the 1400s, temples in Varanasi were again targeted. Sikandar Lodi, a Sultan of the Lodi dynasty (which ruled Delhi from 1451 to 1526), is particularly noted for his iconoclastic zeal. In 1494, he invaded Varanasi and ordered the demolition of many temples, including the rebuilt Vishwanath temple.  

The Sultanate period thus represented a traumatic rupture for Varanasi, characterized by systematic temple destruction and the imposition of new power structures. Yet, it also witnessed the first stirrings of the city’s remarkable resilience, as devotees and patrons repeatedly sought to restore their sacred spaces, however briefly, against overwhelming odds. This cycle became a defining feature of Varanasi’s historical narrative.

The Kashi Vishwanath Temple: Cycles of Ruin and Rebirth

The history of the Kashi Vishwanath Temple is a poignant microcosm of Varanasi’s larger saga of endurance. Its sacred ground has been a focal point of faith, a target of iconoclasm, and a symbol of unwavering Hindu devotion through centuries of turmoil.

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This timeline synthesizes information from multiple sources including.  

As the table illustrates, the original temple, possibly dating to the Gahadavala period under Jayachandra , met its first major destruction at the hands of Qutb-ud-din Aibak’s forces in 1194 CE. A reconstruction by a Gujarati merchant during Sultan Iltutmish’s more stable reign followed. However, the temple was demolished again, with sources pointing to either the Jaunpur Sultanate or Sikandar Lodi in the late 15th century as responsible.  

A significant rebuilding effort took place around 1585 CE, during the tolerant reign of the Mughal Emperor Akbar. This reconstruction was spearheaded by Raja Man Singh of Amer (a Rajput noble in Akbar’s court) and Raja Todar Mal (Akbar’s finance minister), with the guidance of the learned scholar Narayan Bhatta. This period of relative peace and patronage allowed for a resurgence of Hindu religious and cultural activities.  

However, this revival was tragically cut short. During the reign of Akbar’s grandson, Shah Jahan (1628-1657 CE), imperial policy shifted, and it is recorded that around seventy-six partly (re)constructed temples in Varanasi were demolished by his order. The most devastating blow came under Emperor Aurangzeb (1658-1707 CE). Driven by religious orthodoxy, Aurangzeb ordered the demolition of the Kashi Vishwanath temple in 1669 CE. On its razed foundations, he had the Gyanvapi Mosque constructed, a structure that stands to this day. It is during this tumultuous period that a poignant legend arose: the head priest of the temple, learning of Aurangzeb’s impending demolition, is said to have jumped into the nearby well, the Gyan Vapi Kup (Well of Wisdom), with the sacred Shiva Lingam to protect it from desecration. This well still exists between the present temple and the mosque.  

The saga of the Kashi Vishwanath Temple is not merely a local religious history; it reflects broader historical currents of conflict, power assertion, and periods of syncretism that shaped the Indian subcontinent. The repeated destructions were often acts of political and religious dominance by conquering rulers, while the reconstructions signified the resilience of local faith and, at times, periods of more inclusive governance.

The Gyanvapi Story

The Gyanvapi Mosque, built by Aurangzeb in 1669 on the ruins of the Kashi Vishwanath temple, remains a complex and sensitive site. Its western wall, believed by many to be a remnant of the original temple structure, is a focal point of this historical layering. The adjacent Gyan Vapi Kup, the “Well of Wisdom,” holds deep significance due to the aforementioned legend of the Shiva Lingam being hidden within it. The site embodies centuries of intertwined history, religious contestation, and co-existence, making it a subject of ongoing discussion and reverence.  

Mughal Era: Patronage and Persecution

The Mughal period’s impact on Varanasi was a study in contrasts, swinging dramatically with the ideologies of the reigning emperors. Emperor Akbar’s reign (1556-1605 CE) is widely regarded as a period of relative religious tolerance and cultural synthesis. He granted considerable religious freedom, and Hindu nobles in his court, such as Raja Man Singh and Raja Todar Mal, actively participated in repairing, rebuilding, and constructing new temples and ghats in Varanasi. This era brought a sigh of relief and allowed for a significant revival of the city’s religious and cultural life.  

However, this atmosphere of accommodation did not last. Under Akbar’s grandson, Shah Jahan (1628-1657 CE), imperial policy began to shift towards greater Islamic orthodoxy. As noted, around seventy-six temples that were under construction or recently rebuilt in Varanasi were ordered to be destroyed during his rule.  

The pendulum swung to its extreme under Shah Jahan’s son, Aurangzeb (1658-1707 CE). His reign was marked by systematic persecution of non-Muslim faiths. In 1669-1673 CE, he ordered the demolition of numerous prominent temples in Varanasi, including the revered Kashi Vishwanath, Krittivasa, and Vindu Madhava temples. Mosques were constructed on their sites, often using the debris of the demolished structures, effectively sealing these sacred spots from Hindu access for a considerable time. The Mughal era thus presented a double-edged sword for Varanasi: it saw periods of enlightened patronage that fostered cultural flourishing, but also phases of intense religious persecution that led to widespread destruction, demonstrating how profoundly the city’s fate was tied to the personal ideologies of the emperors in Delhi.  

The Maratha Revival: Rebuilding Faith and Fortunes

As Mughal power began to wane in the 18th century, a new political force, the Marathas, rose to prominence. This period heralded a significant revival for Varanasi’s religious landscape. The Marathas, being predominantly Hindu, sponsored extensive rebuilding and restoration efforts in the city.  

Most of the iconic ghats that line the Ganges in Varanasi today were rebuilt or extensively renovated during the 18th century under Maratha patronage. Royal patrons included rulers and nobles from various Maratha houses such as the Shindes (Scindias) of Gwalior, the Holkars of Indore, the Bhonsles of Nagpur, and the Peshwas (the de facto Maratha rulers). They rebuilt the riverfront with durable stone slabs, constructed temples, and established charitable institutions.  

Ahilyabai Holkar’s Enduring Legacy: Among the Maratha patrons, Maharani Ahilyabai Holkar of Indore (ruled 1767-1795 CE) holds a particularly revered place in Varanasi’s history. A devout and benevolent ruler, she took the initiative to construct the present Kashi Vishwanath Temple. This new temple was built adjacent to the Gyanvapi Mosque, as the original site was occupied. Consecrated around 1777-1780 CE, it is this temple that stands today as the primary center of Vishwanath worship. Ahilyabai also reconstructed the smaller Avimukteshvara temple and contributed to numerous other religious and charitable works in Varanasi and across India. Her contributions were not just acts of construction but a conscious effort to restore and rejuvenate Hindu sacred heritage after centuries of desecration. The Maratha period, and especially Ahilyabai’s efforts, played a crucial role in shaping the religious infrastructure of Varanasi as it is experienced by pilgrims and visitors today, ensuring the continuity of its sacred traditions.  

5. The Colonial Chapter and the Dawn of Modern India

The arrival of British influence in the 18th century marked another significant transition for Varanasi, ushering in an era of administrative changes, infrastructural developments, and eventually, a fervent nationalist awakening.

Varanasi under British Rule: Changes and Continuities

The East India Company acquired control over Benares (as Varanasi was commonly called by the British) in 1775 through the Treaty of Faizabad with the Nawab of Awadh. Over the subsequent decades, the city was integrated into the administrative framework of British India, becoming part of the Benares Division, then the North-Western Provinces, and later the United Provinces. In 1910, the British established Varanasi as a new princely state, with its headquarters at Ramnagar (on the opposite bank of the Ganges), though the city of Varanasi itself remained under direct British administration.  

Throughout this period, Varanasi largely retained its fundamental character as a vital commercial and religious hub. While the British introduced certain urban modernizations – such as the construction of masonry bridges over the Ganga and Varuna rivers, the draining of some large ponds (like Benia, Maidagin) to create parks or streets, and the widening of some roads in the city center through demolitions – there was no widespread, systematic interference with its religious life akin to some previous regimes. The changes were primarily focused on governance, urban planning, and the facilitation of trade, allowing the city’s ancient spiritual and commercial rhythms to continue, albeit within a new colonial political structure. This period was characterized by a relative stability for its traditional identity, even as it adapted to new administrative and infrastructural realities.  

The Spirit of Independence and the Rise of Modern Institutions

The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw Varanasi emerge as a significant center for the burgeoning Indian nationalist movement. Education in the city became deeply intertwined with the spirit of independence. Visionary leaders and reformers established new educational institutions that aimed to foster Indian identity, blend traditional wisdom with modern knowledge, and challenge colonial dominance.  

A key figure in this educational renaissance was Annie Besant, who founded the Central Hindu College in 1898. This institution later formed the nucleus of the Banaras Hindu University (BHU), which was established in 1916 through the collaborative efforts of Annie Besant and Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, a prominent nationalist leader. BHU was conceived as India’s first modern residential university, a center for Indian-centric learning and a cradle for future leaders of a free India. Furthering this spirit, the Kashi Vidyapith was established in 1921 as a direct response to Mahatma Gandhi’s call for non-cooperation with British institutions. Mahatma Gandhi himself had connections to the independence struggle in the region.  

These institutions were more than just places of academic learning; they became vibrant platforms for nationalist thought, political discourse, and the cultural reawakening of India. Varanasi, with its ancient legacy as a seat of knowledge, thus reinvented its role in the context of the freedom struggle, contributing intellectually and ideologically to the movement that would eventually lead to India’s independence.

Post-Independence Varanasi: Navigating Heritage and Modernity

After India gained independence in 1947, the princely state of Varanasi was formally merged into the state of Uttar Pradesh. Maharaja Vibhuti Narayan Singh, the last ruler of Benares State, incorporated his territories into the United Provinces (which became Uttar Pradesh) in 1949.  

In the post-independence era, Varanasi, like many ancient cities in India, has faced the complex challenge of balancing the preservation of its unparalleled heritage with the pressures of rapid urbanization and modernization. The city attracts millions of pilgrims and tourists annually, placing immense strain on its ancient infrastructure and delicate ecosystem. The old city center, with its labyrinthine alleys and historic structures, experiences very high population densities, sometimes reaching 500 to 700 persons per hectare. This, coupled with economic development and tourism pressures, puts heritage zones, buildings, and the sacred river ecosystem at significant risk.  

Urban master plans have sometimes led to a decrease in green and open spaces, impacting the city’s ecological balance, which historically relied on garden groves and water bodies to manage issues like water logging. Unplanned mass tourism also has the potential to negatively affect the cultural carrying capacity of the old city and the river. However, there is growing awareness and activism from local non-governmental organizations and citizens who are advocating for measures to preserve Varanasi’s unique cultural heritage. The contemporary chapter in Varanasi’s long history is thus defined by this ongoing effort to navigate the complexities of modern development while safeguarding its ancient sanctity and ensuring that the “oldest living city” remains both a vibrant, functional urban space and true to its timeless spiritual soul.  

6. The Living History: Experiencing Varanasi Today

To truly understand Varanasi’s history, one must experience its living traditions, which unfold daily along its ghats, within its temples, and through its vibrant cultural expressions.

The Ghats: Stairways to the Sacred Ganges

The ghats – long flights of stone steps leading down to the holy Ganges River – are the pulsating heart of Varanasi. There are around 84 ghats stretching along the western bank, each with its own name, history, and significance. From the first light of dawn until late into the night, these ghats are abuzz with a continuous stream of activity, a captivating tableau of life, death, and devotion.  

Life on the Ghats: Rituals, Reflection, and Rhythms: The ghats serve as a vital interface between the city and its sacred river. For millennia, Hindus have believed that a dip in the holy waters of the Ganges cleanses sins and purifies the soul. Thus, a common sight is devotees performing ritual ablutions, offering prayers to the rising sun, practicing yoga and meditation, or simply sitting in quiet contemplation. Beyond the sacred, the ghats are also places for mundane activities: laundry is washed and spread out to dry, children play, and people gather for social interaction. Perhaps most strikingly, the ghats are where the final journey of life culminates. The riveting ceremonies of birth and death often occur in close proximity, bringing into sharp focus the eternal truths of human existence.  

Must-See Ghats: Dashashwamedh, Manikarnika, Assi Ghat, and their Stories: While each ghat has its charm, some are particularly renowned:

• Dashashwamedh Ghat: This is arguably the most famous and liveliest ghat, centrally located near the Kashi Vishwanath Temple. Legend holds that Lord Brahma performed ten Ashwamedha (horse) sacrifices here, hence its name. It is the primary location for the spectacular evening Ganga Aarti ceremony.  
• Manikarnika Ghat: This is the principal cremation ghat in Varanasi, a place where funeral pyres burn 24 hours a day. Hindus believe that being cremated here grants Moksha (liberation). The ghat is steeped in mythology, with one legend telling of Lord Vishnu digging a pit with his discus and filling it with his perspiration, into which Lord Shiva’s earring (manikarnika) fell. (It is often noted that women may not be permitted directly at the pyres, though they can observe from a distance ).  
• Assi Ghat: Situated at the southern end of the main ghat stretch, this ghat marks the traditional confluence of the Ganges with the (now mostly dry) Assi River. It finds mention in the Puranas (associated with a legend of Goddess Durga) and is also known as the place where the 16th-century poet-saint Tulsidas composed parts of the Ramcharitmanas. It is a popular and relatively spacious ghat, often frequented by long-term visitors and researchers.  
• Harishchandra Ghat: This is the other major cremation ghat, and some traditions hold it to be older than Manikarnika. It is named after the mythological King Harishchandra, who was tested for his adherence to truth and righteousness.  
• Other Notable Ghats: Many other ghats offer unique glimpses into Varanasi’s life. Scindia Ghat is known for its partially submerged Shiva temple, a result of the ghat’s excessive weight during construction. Maan-Mandir Ghat features an 18th-century observatory (Jantar Mantar) built by Maharaja Jai Singh II of Jaipur. Panchganga Ghat, as its name suggests, is believed to be the meeting point of five sacred rivers (though only the Ganges is visible today). Tulsi Ghat is named after Tulsidas, and Jain Ghat has distinct Jain temples.  

The ghats of Varanasi are not merely architectural features; they are dynamic, open-air theaters where the entire spectrum of human experience – from daily routines and joyous celebrations to profound spiritual practices and the solemn rites of passage – unfolds against the timeless backdrop of the sacred Ganges. This public display of life’s most intimate and sacred moments, combined with the everyday, offers an unparalleled and deeply immersive cultural experience.

The Spectacle of Ganga Aarti: An Unforgettable Evening Ritual: Every evening, as dusk settles over Varanasi, the ghats come alive with the Ganga Aarti, a mesmerizing and deeply spiritual ceremony. While performed at several ghats, the Aarti at Dashashwamedh Ghat is the most renowned and elaborate. This ritual is an expression of reverence and gratitude towards Mother Ganga, and also honors Lord Shiva, Surya (the Sun God), Agni (the Fire God), and the entire cosmos.  

A group of young pandits (priests), clad in traditional attire, conduct the ceremony with remarkable synchronicity. They wield large, heavy brass lamps with tiered flames, making graceful, choreographed movements in rhythm with the chanting of Vedic hymns, the ringing of bells, the blowing of conch shells, and the soul-stirring devotional music. The air fills with the fragrance of incense and camphor. Devotees and onlookers often release small oil lamps (diyas) on leaf platters, adorned with flowers, into the river, creating a magical sight as these tiny flames float downstream. The entire ceremony, lasting about 45 minutes, is a captivating audio-visual feast that instills a sense of peace and divine connection.  

• Timings: The Ganga Aarti usually commences around 6:30 PM in summer and 7:00 PM in winter. It is advisable to arrive at least an hour early to secure a good vantage point, either on the ghat steps or in a boat on the river.  

Kashi Vishwanath Temple Today: A Pilgrim’s Destination

The Kashi Vishwanath Temple remains the spiritual epicenter of Varanasi, drawing millions of pilgrims annually. As one of the twelve Jyotirlingas, its sanctity is paramount. Visiting the temple and having the darshan of Lord Vishwanath is a cherished goal for devout Hindus. The atmosphere within the temple complex is charged with devotion, the air resonating with prayers and chants.  

The temple is famed for its three golden domes, made of pure gold, which are a spectacular sight. Devotees make various offerings, including panchamrut (a sacred mixture of milk, honey, sugar, yogurt, and ghee). A popular belief holds that making a sincere wish while gazing at the main temple dome will lead to its fulfillment, by the grace of Lord Shiva. In recent years, the temple complex has undergone significant renovation and expansion, including the construction of the Kashi Vishwanath Corridor, inaugurated in 2021, aimed at improving facilities and accessibility for pilgrims.  

• Visitor Information:
  • Address: Chief Executive Officer, Shri Kashi Vishwanath Temple Help Desk, CK 37/40,41,42 Bansphatak, Varanasi-221 001.  
  • Phone: +91-7080292930; WhatsApp: +91-6393131608; Travel & Stay: +91 6201269560.  
  • Email: [email protected], [email protected].  
  • Official Website: shrikashivishwanath.org. This is a valuable resource for booking Sugam Darshan (facilitated viewing), various poojas (ritual worship) like Rudrabhishek, and finding information on Aarti timings.  
  • Timings: The temple is generally open 24/7. Key Aartis include the Mangala Aarti (very early morning, around 3-4 AM) and the Shringar Aarti (evening). Specific timings should be checked on the official website.  

Other Sacred Spots: Sankat Mochan Temple and more

Beyond the Kashi Vishwanath Temple and the ghats, Varanasi is home to countless other temples and sacred sites.

• Sankat Mochan Temple: Dedicated to Lord Hanuman, the remover of obstacles (sankat mochan), this temple is highly revered. It also houses idols of Lord Rama and Lord Shiva. The temple premises often resonate with the melodious recitation of the Hanuman Chalisa. It is believed to have been established by the saint-poet Tulsidas.  
• Gyan Vapi Kup: The “Well of Wisdom,” located near the Kashi Vishwanath Temple and Gyanvapi Mosque, holds historical and religious significance due to the legend of the original Shiva Lingam being hidden there. Other important temples include the Durga Temple (Monkey Temple), recognizable by its red shikhara, and the Tulsi Manas Mandir, a modern marble temple dedicated to Lord Rama, where the Ramcharitmanas is inscribed on the walls.  

7. The Cultural Tapestry: Art, Craft, and Music

Varanasi’s historical depth is also reflected in its rich artistic traditions, which have been nurtured over centuries and continue to thrive.

The Silken Legacy: The Timeless Allure of Banarasi Weaving

Varanasi is globally renowned for its exquisite Banarasi silk saris, which are prized for their opulent embroidery, fine silk, and intricate brocade work using gold and silver threads (known as zari). This weaving tradition has ancient roots. Kashi (Varanasi) was acknowledged as a famous weaving and trade center even in ancient scriptures like the Vedas, which mention a distinguished cloth of gold called Hiranya worn by gods, considered an early equivalent of Banarasi brocades. The Buddhist Jataka tales (5th-6th century BCE) also refer to the Kashi Kingdom as a principal center for manufacturing cotton and silk fabrics.  

While cotton weaving was ancient, the art of silk brocade weaving in Banaras likely received a significant impetus around the 17th century with the migration of skilled silk weavers from Gujarat, who were fleeing famine in their region. The craft reached its zenith during the Mughal period, particularly under the patronage of Emperor Akbar in the 14th century onwards (though the major silk weaver migration was later). During this time, weavers in Banaras began to specialize in creating unique and intricate silk brocades incorporating Persian, Mughal, and Central Asian design influences, blending them with indigenous techniques.  

Banarasi saris are characterized by their intricate intertwining floral and foliate motifs (kalga and bel), a string of upright leaves called jhallar at the outer edge of the border, compact weaving, figures with minute details, metallic visual effects, elaborate pallus (the decorated end piece), net-like patterns (jal), and delicate mina work (enamel-like inlay). Depending on the complexity of its design, a single Banarasi sari can take anywhere from 15 days to a month, and sometimes up to six months, to complete.  

Today, this traditional craft continues as a vital cottage industry, providing livelihoods for an estimated 1.2 million people in and around Varanasi. In recognition of its unique heritage, “Banaras Brocades and Saris” have been granted a Geographical Indication (GI) tag, which helps protect their authenticity and origin. The Banarasi weaving tradition is thus a remarkable example of cultural synthesis, where ancient Indian textile knowledge has been enriched by techniques and aesthetics brought by migrating artisans and influenced by diverse cultural interactions, resulting in a globally cherished art form.  

The Soulful Strains: Varanasi’s Rich Tradition of Classical Music (Banaras Gharana)

Varanasi has long been celebrated as a prominent hub of Indian classical music, particularly Hindustani vocal and instrumental music. The city is home to the renowned Banaras Gharana, one of the distinct schools or traditions (gharana) of Hindustani classical music. A gharana represents a particular lineage of musicians, characterized by a unique style of performance, technique, and pedagogical approach, passed down through generations.  

The Banaras Gharana is particularly known for its distinctive approach to rhythm (Tala) and melody (Raaga). Its music is celebrated for its intricate ornamentations, spontaneous elaborations of ragas, and a profound ability to express the rasa (emotional essence) of the music with elegance and improvisational flair. The gharana incorporates both classical and semi-classical (like Thumri) traditions, and its repertoire is often imbued with a deep sense of spirituality and devotion, reflecting the city’s vibrant cultural and religious ethos. Varanasi has produced many influential musicians who have enriched the landscape of Indian classical music , including legends like Ustad Bismillah Khan (shehnai maestro), Girija Devi (Thumri queen), and Pandit Ravi Shankar (sitar maestro), whose music carried the essence of Banaras to global audiences. The classical music of the Banaras Gharana is more than just an artistic tradition; it is a living embodiment of Varanasi’s spiritual soul, where music often serves as a form of worship and a conduit to the divine.  

8. Varanasi: A Journey Through Time Awaits

Varanasi is not a city that can be merely seen; it must be experienced, felt, and absorbed. Its history is not confined to dusty archives or museum displays but is vibrantly alive in its ancient alleys, along its sacred ghats, in the rhythmic chants of its priests, and in the enduring faith of its people. From its mythological origins as the city of Lord Shiva and its claim as one of the oldest continuously inhabited places on Earth, through its eras as a center of Vedic learning and Buddhist enlightenment, its trials under invading Sultanates and Mughals, its revival under Maratha patronage, and its role in India’s journey to modernity, Varanasi has remained an unwavering beacon of spirituality and culture.

The city’s resilience is perhaps its most defining characteristic. It has weathered countless storms, witnessed cycles of destruction and rebirth, yet its spiritual heart has continued to beat strongly. A visit to Varanasi is more than a trip; it is an encounter with a civilization that has mastered the art of continuity, a place where the past and present coalesce in a timeless dance. As one witnesses the Ganga Aarti’s divine spectacle or takes a dawn boat ride along the sacred river, one cannot help but feel touched by the city’s profound antiquity and its enduring spirit.  

For the curious traveler seeking to connect with this living history, a few suggestions may enhance the journey:

• Approach the city with an open mind and heart, observing its rituals and traditions with respect.
• A boat ride on the Ganges at sunrise is an unparalleled experience, offering a panoramic view of the ghats awakening to life.
• Wander through the narrow, winding lanes of the old city, discovering hidden temples, bustling markets, and centuries-old architecture.
• Dedicate ample time to explore the serene ruins and profound history of nearby Sarnath.
• If possible, attend a classical music performance to experience the soulful strains of the Banaras Gharana.

Varanasi is a journey into the soul of India, a place where every stone has a story, and every moment can be a revelation. It is a city that continues to live, breathe, and share its ancient wisdom with all who come to its sacred shores.